Final writing exercise Essay

There are three phases whereby each has a different crystal structure at three different temperatures. At room temperature (298K), Phase III is present whereby Cs3H(SeO4)2 has a crystal structure of a monoclinic with a space group of C2/m. At 400K, Phase II is present whereby Cs3H(SeO4)2 has a crystal structure of a monoclinic-A2/a symmetry. At 470K, Phase I is present whereby Cs3H(SeO4)2 has a crystal structure of a trigonal with a space group of R3-m. In Phase III, as we can see in Figure 2(a), the positioning of the tetrahedrons is parallel to the a-axis, and in between these SeO4 tetrahedrons are the hydrogen bonds. Looking at a 2dimensional perspective, we can also see that there is a translation movement of the SeO4 tetrahedrons along the a-axis; hence the symmetry operator would be a glide line parallel to a-axis. In a 3-dimensional perspective, we can see that Phase III has a 2-fold rotation axis and contains glide planes. In Phase II, from Figure 2(b), we can see that the positioning of the SeO4 tetrahedrons are along the approximate direction [310]. Observing the schematic of the crystal structure in Phase II, we can see that there is a vertical mirror line in between the SeO4 tetrahedrons. There is also an a-glide reflection vertically. In Phase I, from Figure 2(c), the positioning of SeO4 tetrahedron is similar to that of Phase II, however the difference is the crystal structure and the hydrogen bonding. Comparing both Phase II and Phase III crystal structures of the compound, Phase II contains two-fold screw axis, inversion center and a two-fold rotation axis, which is the sole reason for Phase II to be twice of that of Phase III in terms of geometrical  arrangement of hydrogen bonds. From the above analysis of the symmetry of the crystals structures in different phases, we can tell that Phase III has the most symmetry operators and hence achieving the highest crystal symmetry generating a low geometrical arrangement of hydrogen bonds. Due to the low geometrical arrangement of hydrogen bonds, the mobility of protons decreases giving the result of ferroelasticiy. The drastic change from superprotonic conductivity to ferroelasticty happens when there is a change from Phase II to Phase III. The major difference between theses 2 phases is the hydrogen bond arrangement. Paragraph 2 Under the optical microscope, we can observe that the polymorphic domains will alter at each phase transition to a different extent. We can see in phase III that the domains in the Cs3H(SeO4)2 crystal are made up of polydomains separated by two kinds of domain boundaries. The two kinds of domain boundaries are categorized as the planes of {311} and {11n}, where n is determined by the strain compatibility condition. The domains at the sides of each domain boundary are related to the reflective symmetry or the rotational symmetry on that boundary itself. Furthermore, we can observe that the angle between any domain and its neighboring domains is approximately 120 °, which is very close to the theoretical values calculated using the lattice parameters. As we move on from phase III to phase II, we can observe that the domain structure alters slightly by the phase transition of TII–III. Similarly, the reflective symmetry and rotational symmetry also changes at the same phase transition. However, the kinds of domain and domain boundary remain the same as those in phase III despite a change in domain pattern. This could be due to the slight change in alignment of hydrogen bonding between the SeO4 tetrahedrons when the existing hydrogen bonds were broken to form new weaker  ones. This might explains why their lattice parameters a and b do not really change appreciably. Compared to phase III previously, the angle between any domain and its neighboring domains in phase II is also approximately 120 ° and is justified by the theoretical values determined from the same equation we used for phase III. Hence, this suggest a slight change in the Cs3H(SeO4)2 crystal structure at the phase transition of TII–III. From phase II to phase I, the domain boundaries is observed to have disappear just before the curie temperature of the phase transition of TI–II and the crystal structure changes from  optically biaxial to optically uniaxial. This could be due to an external stress caused by the atomic rearrangement of the SeO4 tetrahedrons in the Cs3H(SeO4)2 crystal as a result of breaking the hydrogen bonds between them. Paragraph 3 Higher temperatures for most material will enable atoms to move to low energy sites, fitting into a perfect crystal symmetry. Cs3H(SeO4)2 however behaves differently. As the temperature increases (above 396K), its crystal symmetry decreases when it changes phase from III to II. The orientation of the hydrogen bond for phase II and III differs. For phase II, the orientation is along [310] and [3-10] direction whereas for phase III, it is parallel to the aaxis. As the transition from phase III to II occurs, the precursor of the superprotonic conductivity is observed. In order for movement of proton to occur, the breaking and then recombination of hydrogen bonds are required. For phase III, in order for the movement of one proton, the breaking of 2 hydrogen bonds is needed. The reason as to why 2 hydrogen bond is needed to be broken and recombined again is because for the movement of one proton to occur, it must break the hydrogen bond it resides in and then change its orientation, recombining at another site; the mirroring effect of opposite hydrogen bond is required to maintain the crystal symmetry i.e. to say that the another hydrogen bond parallel to the previous hydrogen bond site needs to be broken and recombined at other site parallel to the newly  recombined hydrogen bond. In this way, in phase III, the recombination of two hydrogen bonds is simultaneously needed for one proton transport. Phase II however, behaves differently. The movement of the proton is independent of the other protons at other hydrogen site. The crystal structure allows for this flexibility of the proton motion, which the superprotonic conduction takes place. The mechanism in which proton transportation occurs in the polymorphs is by the diffusion of protons through a hydrogen bond network, by the cleaving and formation of the hydrogen bonds. However, in certain phases, the cleavage and formation of the hydrogen bond might differ. The fuel cell works on the basis of the movement of protons. The movement of electrons should be disallowed as it would short circuit the fuel cell. Hence, a membrane is used to allow only the movement of protons across and not electrons and gases. On top of that, in order for a superprotonic effect to occur, the flexibility for proton motion must be allo wed. Hence, the lesser symmetrically patterned the phases the protons reside in, the higher this flexibility.

College Graduation Essay

I had been waiting for this morning to come for four years. In a few hours it came and went, but it was an important time in my life. Graduation day was the end of one life and the beginning of a new life with different problems, worries and joys. While walking in the theater, I had seen hundreds of parents, grandparents, children, and even alumni students’. My family was there, excited and cheering for me because I had finally made it. I was backstage getting ready for the walk on stage and thinking that I had finally reached the one day that would end college life and start a new life in the workplace. The time came for all the graduates to line up and start heading on stage to begin the ceremony. The walk to the podium seemed to take forever, as if we were waiting in line at Cedar Point. I just wanted to get my college degree, and get the day over with, but we had to wait for the band to start playing as well as the Valedictorians and Salutatorians to begin. I was excited and scared at the same time because I knew that once I walked across that stage everything would be different. The sound of the cheering, the stately music, the solemn atmosphere, and the joy of the students all play a part in creating this spectacle. It had represented the culmination of years of our hard work, careful planning, and studiousness. We must say goodbye to the fun and excitement of college days and enter the real world. As graduates, we’re reminded of duty to uphold and the finest traditions of the university and act in a spirit of honesty and integrity. During the graduation exercise I became bored. Crazy thoughts started roaming through my head while sitting there. Such as; â€Å"oh my god† I hope I don’t trip and fall in these six inch black heels, I’m nervous; hundredths of people will be staring as I walk across that stage. Just before I knew it; â€Å"Good morning staff, parents, and fellow graduates. This year, you seniors have come a long way,† Ms. Pierce, our vice president at the university, droned into the microphone. Ms. Pierce is a tall, thick, brown-skinned woman, who I’ve always known throughout my four years there at the university. As she went on babbling about how proud she was, and how hard we’d worked, all I could think about was how I had longed for this moment to finally come, I was still somewhat startled and amazed by this brilliant event. This eventually brought small joyful tears to my eyes. Just a few days earlier, I had been counting down the days to graduation. â€Å"Only two days left before graduation, and four weeks and four days left until summer! † I shouted out as I began marking off the May days in my calendar. Waiting to be called up then all of a sudden I heard: Tamar Perryman, with a loud applause and smiling faces of excitement. Walking up to get my degree as well as shaking the vice presidents hand with a firm grip. Finally I had overcome my fear and accepted my bachelor’s degree! About an hour later, our graduating class threw our caps up. As a sign of excitement, It was now time to party afterwards; I and some of my other classmates went from one friend party to the next following the commencement. When walking towards the backyard I had smelled barbeque from the grill, and boy did it smelled delicious. My stomach started to growl and I knew that was a sign to hurry and smash. I also noticed the beautiful dandelions off by the side of the garage. Picnics tables were set with decorated signs that read â€Å"Congrats you’ve made it† balloons were pinned up, soft music was playing from the garage Adults were gathered around taking pictures with friends and family. Several parents’ and grandparents’ attend to share their excitement as well, gifts were brought from office supplies to home house ware appliances. By midnight I was extremely tired from what a long day, I knew today would be a memory that I would never forget about while lying in my queen size sleigh bed. Before dozing off to sleep, I started thinking about what hospitals, clinics, and long-term care facilities I was going to apply to first thing in the morning.

Duality in Psycho 1960 Essay

Psycho is a 1960 horror film directed by Alfred Hitchcock starring Anthony Perkins, Janet Leigh, Vera Miles and John Gavin. The film is based on the 1959 novel of the same name by Robert Bloch. The main theme that Hitchcock tries to express to the audience is dual or split personalities. Everyone has a subconscious battle with good and evil; he shows this in many different ways using lighting, different camera techniques, mise-en-scene and silence. Also he used a string orchestra to add tension and drama as well as setting the tone for impending violence. The movie starts with Marion Crane and her boyfriend Sam Loomis in an intimate scene, before she has to go back to work. When she returns to work she is instructed to bank $40000 for her employer but decides to steal it and skip town instead. Driving on a rainy night, she pulls into the Bates Motel where she meets Norman Bates. After being showed to her room the two have dinner and they talk about Norman’s ill mother. Later that night while Marion is in the shower a shadowy figure comes and stabs her to death. Norman bursts into the bathroom and finds Marion’s dead body so he wraps her in a shower curtain then dumps her body and car in a nearby swamp. Marion’s sister Lila and boyfriend Sam are concerned about her disappearance. A private detective named Arbogast is also looking for Marion. Arbogast finds the Bates Motel and notices Norman acting suspiciously. He mentions Marion meeting his mother, so Arbogast goes up to the house to find her but a figure emerges and murders him. When Arbogast doesn’t return Lila and Sam visit the sheriff who is puzzled about Arbogast’s claim that the mother died years ago. Sam and Lila rent a room at the Bates Motel and while Sam distracts Norman, Lila sneaks up to the house where she finds Norman’s mother’s corpse. Norman Bates then bursts in, wearing a dress and wig and tries to kill Lila but is stopped by Sam. After Norman is arrested the psychiatrist reveals that Norman murdered his mother and her lover and then developed a split personality to erase the memory of the crime. The movie ends with Marion’s car being pulled from the swamp. (Ebert,1998) One of the main techniques Hitchcock uses to express the theme of duality is  the use different lighting. This is evident in the parlour scene when Norman and Marion are talking about Norman’s mother. The light source in this scene is high on the wall and closer to Marion leaving Norman in the dark. The angle light behind Norman is very sharp and it draws the audience’s attention to the large dead birds that Norman has but leaves everything else behind him very dark and dull to make it seem almost like he’s lurking in the shadows. (Lamb,2013). Again in the parlour scene only half of Normans face is lit insinuating that he has a dark side but also that half of him is still good. This technique is used more than once throughout the film. In the same scene Marion is depicted as sweet and innocent with her full face being lit. She has a large round light behind her leaving no shadows and lighting the entire wall. It’s in this scene that Marion good side prev ails and she decides to go back to Phoenix and return the stolen money. Another technique Hitchcock uses well in the film is sound. The score was written for a string orchestra by Bernard Herrmann even though Hitchcock initially requested a jazz score. However, after the film’s success, Hitchcock said â€Å"thirty three percent of the effect of Psycho was due to the music† (Smith,1991, p.241). The title music which is a tense hurtling piece plays three times throughout the film adding tension to some of the earlier scenes. (Palmer,1990, p.275). He also uses silence to build suspense. For example, in the shower scene Marion gets undressed and begins showering with no background music; this implies that something bad will happen yet, when the shadowy figure appears the violins are used in a screeching and stabbing sound motion of extreme viciousness. (Palmer,1990, p.277). The mise-en-scene is extraordinarily influential throughout Psycho but the best example of this would be in the parlour scene. One of the main objects in this scene is the milk jug that Norman carries on the tray. The spout is like an arrow pointing to Marion, This shows the audience that Norman has chosen her as his prey. Another obvious technique used in this scene is the position and placement of the actors and also the body language used. When Norman and Marion are standing facing each other Norman is holding the tray with both arms making it look almost like he’s pointing at Marion reinforcing the idea that he has chosen her, while Marion stands with both  arms by her side making her seem unaware and innocent. (Quality Teacher Program,2002, p.14). Also, while Norman and Marion are standing outside the office Norman’s reflection can be seen in the window, which supports the idea of duality in the film. Camera angle and different camera movements are another fantastic technique that Hitchcock uses very well in Psycho to reinforce the theme of duality. This can be seen in the opening scene where the camera positions the viewer as a voyeur witnessing an illicit affair between Marion who is in her lunch break and Sam who is a divorcee. In the 1950’s this was seen as pushing the limits of what is socially and morally acceptable. The shower scene also uses an extreme close up of Marion eye which shows her guilt as well as her innocence. Her open eye suggests she didn’t deserve to be killed by Norman but also by dying she has been punished for letting her evil side take over and stealing the money. (Quality Teacher Program,2002, p.29) Hitchcock achieved his goal with Psycho by portraying his main theme of duality in human nature. He made the theme obvious to the audience and reinforced it in many different ways using a large range of techniques including camera angle and position, lighting, sound and mise-en-scene. From the thrilling and somewhat haunting music in the opening credits right up until the final scene where Marion’s car is pulled from the swamp the theme is very effective in a way that keeps the audience thinking long after the film is over. Bibliography A Thematic Analysis of Alfred Hitchcock’s Psycho. http://www.novelguide.com/reportessay/literature/novels/thematic-analysis-alfred-hitchcocks-psycho (Retrieved on 26/3/14) Ebert, R. 1998. Psycho Review. http://www.rogerebert.com/reviews/great-movie-psycho-1960(Retrieved on 26/3/14) Final Paper. http://www.docstoc.com/docs/147378225/Final-Paper (Retrieved on 25/3/14) Kato, M. n.d., Hitchcock’s Psycho Analysis, University of Kyoto, Kyoto. Lamb, B. 2013, Mise-en-scene. http://lessonbucket.com/vce-media/units-3-4/narrative/mise-en-scene/ (retrieved on 26/3/14) Nixon, R. n.d. Behind the Camera on PSYCHO. http://www.tcm.com/this-month/article/191164%7C0/Behind-the-Camera-Psycho.html (Retrieved on 26/3/14) Palmer, C.1990, The Composer in Hollywood, Marion Boyars, London Plot Synopsis. http://www.imdb.com/title/tt0054215/ (Retrieved on 25/3/14) Psycho (motion picture) 1960, Paramount Pictures, Los Angeles, Producer, Alfred Hitchcock. Quality Teacher Program, 2002, Critical Literacy in English Years 8-10, Quality Teacher Program, Sydney. Smith, S.C. 1991, A Heart at Fire’s Center; The Life and Music of Bernard Herrmann, University of California Press, Berkeley

The Empire of Ghana Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

The Empire of Ghana - Essay Example According to the archaeological evidence available, in the initial stages of the kingdom, the relatively low levels of economic and technological development coupled with a sense of communism among the citizens led to minimal differentiation among social classes. This trend changed when the empire discovered natural resources such as gold within its boundaries. In addition, its proximity to major sub Saharan trade routes also contributed to the rise of economic muscle of the kingdom (Irele & Jeyifo, 2010). The development of iron resources and ironworking skills among the people led to production of weapons, which made it easier for the empire to expand its territory by conquering the neighbouring tribes. The production of iron tools also led to better farm equipments, which brought about distribution of labour and increased stratification of social classes. The main territories of the kingdom lay in the middle of trade routes that were used by ivory and gold producers of the south a nd Arab and Berber tradesmen of the north who introduced camels in the empire. The empire ensured that it had an army of at least 200, 000 warriors mainly of Soninke origin who provided the trade caravans with security during their journeys. These warriors were also responsible for invasion of neighbouring tribes in a bid to expand their territory and to get slaves to provide labour in the farms and mines (Masonen & Senkomago, 2005). Initially, the government structure in the Ghana Empire was a communal system led by village elders; however, with increased military and trade activities, the empire expanded its authority and territories, which led to the formation of a hierarchical system of governance led by an emperor. The rule of the emperor was absolute as he had the final word regarding all activities within the empire. He was assisted to rule by the royal council that directed and vetted his decisions, in addition, the council was also responsible for the supervising all govern ment affairs. The monarchy had a matrilineal succession style where the son of the emperor’s sister would succeed the emperor on his death. With the growth in the kingdom, the government structure became sophisticated and the emperors had to entrust the responsibility of running the affairs of the government to viziers (prime ministers) who in turn were assisted by many officials in various areas of administration such as palace, foreign affairs, trade among others (Haywood, 2008). The introduction of Islam religion and its culture from the Middle East brought with it more elaborative leadership styles that were used in that region (Lange, 2005). The empire of Ghana was divided into provinces that were ruled by governors appointed by the king, in addition, there were tributary kingdoms that were allowed to retain their autonomy by the king but they had to pay tribute to the emperor and provide the empire with soldiers. Justice in the empire of Ghana was served by higher and l ower courts that became active after Arab traders set their base in the region. The empire had two main sources of revenue; one was tax that was levied per donkey and camel load of precious metals or merchandise that entered or left the empire, secondly, the empire got revenues from production tax that was levied on gold and iron ore, which were the most precious resources that the country had. The capital city of the empire is

Eradication of Obesity Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Eradication of Obesity - Essay Example The proposed obesity eradication plan has many outcomes that occur during its implementation. The first one is that the long-term programs that address physical activity are often successful.   The programs that are implemented for more than five months are associated with increased physical activity and the young generation. Moreover, the programs that teach skill building are often associated with enhanced physical activity. While teaching the young people self-controlled physical action, expertise includes training them in ways by which they should integrate physical training into their lives and look for ways of making the physical exercise enjoyable and autonomous. In addition, the physical exercise obesity eradication plans that are designed for the adolescence group were very much effective. Implementation of the eradication of obesity project has benefits to the patients rather than the hospital. However there are some advantages that the hospital personnel have that affect the hospital indirectly. The implementation process helps the managers to perfect their managerial skills in the field. This in turn benefits the hospital because the managers could now handle their work with more efficiency thus benefiting the hospital. Moreover, the obesity eradication implementation action plan helps to break the monotony that nurses might be having in the hospital. In so doing, their brains are refreshed and thus they become rejuvenated and can improve their service afterwards thus benefiting the hospitals.  

Christology Term Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2750 words

Christology - Term Paper Example ‘From above’ concept of Christology refers to the ideology of incarnation of a person as a human being and spends the entire life in serving to the welfare of others. The ‘from above’ concept is best applicable to the birth of Jesus Christ as he had incarnated to serve for the well-being of the humankind (Wildman 285-286). The Christology’s concept was made clear, as it was completely assumed that Jesus was the savior of human being. After this analysis of Jesus, it was necessary to understand the relationship between Jesus and his holy being. The holy being of Jesus Christ is always at the point of various types of controversies and belief of the Christianity. In accordance with the Christianity, few of the orthodox Christians believe that Jesus was the God sent for serving the welfare of the people. On the other hand, in the current scenario, the liberal theologians are strictly against of the belief that Jesus is God (Wildman 285-286). Thus, this essay will study the significance of Second Vatican Council on the Church’s Patristic heritage. This essay has been presented with an intention of analyzing the significance of Second Vatican Council on the Church’s patristic heritage. Accordingly, that reclaimed heritage has been understood with the description of the Keresztys Christology (Part III). In the last section of the essay, a detailed study has been conducted on the ways that Christology reflects on the Latin West’s medieval heritage. The political significance of Second Vatican Council had created complexities on the profound belief of the common people on Jesus Christ. The Second Vatican Council was one of the changes that had occurred in the early twentieth century. After its formation, it became one of the most significant aspects, as it changed the life of the million Christians. Pope John XXIII had announced Second Vatican Council on January 25, 1959 in order to reveal the spiritual renewal of the church and to declare that

Foundations of Business Law Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Foundations of Business Law - Assignment Example Although George decides not to go with the suggestion, Kosmo invests a large sum of his profit in the Facebook shares. A month after the release of Facebook shares their value has reduced by 50%. In discovering this, Kosmo becomes really agitated and decides to go and talk to Gerry. As he burst out of the building he slams the door on the face of Newman, his neighbour who was also rushing in. As a result Newman is injured and will not be able to participate to the Adelaide Petanque Club Championship, which he has won for the past 3 years, also earning $40Â  000 cash prize each time. Question 1 Kosmo wants to know what kind of legal action, if any, he might have against Gerry. Gerry, a financial advisor in Tom & Gerry Limited advised George to buy shares in Facebook. In advising George on buying Facebook shares, Gerry acted on behalf of Tom & Gerry Ltd as his financial adviser. Since Gerry was working on behalf of Tom & Gerry Limited, it must be seen whether Tom & Gerry Limited would be liable on the principles of vicarious liability. The principle of vicarious liability states that the Employee shall be liable to compensate the Plaintiff, for any tortuous conduct by the employee committed in the course of the employee’s duties. In determining what is in the course of employment, a broad approach should be adopted in assessing the scope of employment. The closeness of the act to the scope of employment is the determining factor in this regard (House of Lords, 2001). The act of advising on investment options is closely related to Gerry’s role as a financial advisor. Therefore, on the principles of vicarious liability, it can be safely Tom & Gerry Limited would be liable for any tortuous act committed by Gerry in the course of his duties (House of Lords, 2001). Therefore, given that it is the company that is liable for the tortuous conduct of those acting with authority on its behalf, there is no cause of action against Gerry. The cause of action, i f any may lie against Tom & Gerry Limited. However, in the absence of additional facts, the mere fact that the stock price of Facebook collapsed after the purchase is no ground to sustain a claim for negligence against the Company. Without commenting on whether the act amounted to negligence, it must be determined whether the company owed any duty of care to Kosmo who invested in the shares of Facebook on the basis of such advice and suffered a loss on such investment. For imposing a duty of care there must be proximity of relationship between the plaintiff and the Defendant and nature of the harm caused must be foreseeable. Pertinently, the advice was given to George and not to Kosmo. Kosmo acted upon it without the knowledge of Gerry. Given that there was no proximity of relationship between Gerry and Kosmo, it follows that the reliance by Cosmo on such advice was not foreseeable by Tom & Gerry Limited. The facts of this case are similar to the decision of the House of Lords in Ca paro v Hickman (Jovis, 1990). It was held that an auditor who negligently issues misstatements in financial reports is not liable to outside investors who were not intended recipients of the report. Similar observations are found in the speech of Lord Denning, when he observed that for imposing a duty of care and skill, the relationship must be such where the advisor (in that case the accountant) is aware of the person for whom and purpose for which the advise would be used (Wikipedia, 1951) The

Many forms of Grief or your suggestion Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Many forms of Grief or your suggestion - Essay Example Then his servants and finally his own family that his own son and daughters were not spared until finally Job was left nothing. The devil was ecstatic thinking that Job will break with the grief and suffering he is left with nothing because he will think that God has forsaken him. Indeed he felt pain and suffering and was at first angry asking why this happened to him. But eventually, he came to accept that everything has a reason and whatever happened to him is God’s will. His faith however was still intact despite of the trials he had been and still continued to love God. The devil was perplexed how can Job still love God despite what he had been through. Thereupon, God restored what was lost to Job for He saw that Job was a faithful servant of the Lord despite the trials he had been (Job’s Grief, nd). What Job went through can be likened to the Kubler-Ross five stage process of grief. First, he was in denial that all of his possession was taken from him because he wa s a faithful servant of the Lord. He was under the belief that he was under the protection of the Lord that no evil will come upon him. But evil did come and took away from him sparing him only his life. He went through the process of questioning why it happened to him and was upset albeit it was subtly expressed in the Bible. This stage was the anger stage of Elisabeth Kulber-ross whereby she posited that people experience anger after denial and this anger can come in many forms – either anger to oneself, others or anger with the situation (Axelrod, 2006). The third stage of Kulber-ross stage of grief may have been absent in the case of Jobs. He knew that he is dealing with mighty entities like God and therefore, he is not in a position to bargain or ask for concession and neither will God allow him to bargain as equal him only a mortal and a creation. The closest act that Job has done in this stage was to question why God allowed all those bad things to happen to him despit e him being a faithful servant. What Job went through the process in Kulber-ross stage of grief which is prominent in the Biblical account is the depression stage. This understandable because Job, despite his righteousness is still a man and therefore, vulnerable to pain especially when he lost his children and was left with nothing. It would be abnormal if Job did not feel depression when he lost his children just because he loved God. In the end, Job accepted his fate as the will of God and did not lose his faith. This stage is Kulber-ross acceptance stage whereby the grief process has been gone through and now accepting whatever caused the grief (Elizabeth Kubler Ross Grief Cycle model,nd ). This stage is providential to Job when he accepted his fate from God because he proved his faith and all that he lost was given back to him. My process of grieving almost followed Kulber-ross stage of grief with some stage more prominent than the other stage. But there is one thing that was n ot included in Kulber-ross process of grieving, that is my tendency to shut myself out when I do not feel good. I am not necessarily angry just like his stage of anger but would just like to spend time alone to think things over and to get over depression. Sometimes, I want to talk it to with friends just to unburden it off my chest. This stage is not in Kulber-ross but a lot of young people I know do this to deal with grief.

How Brunelleschis Duomo Influenced the Qualities of the Emerging Essay

How Brunelleschis Duomo Influenced the Qualities of the Emerging Renaissance - Essay Example This included arches and column of Rome and the domes of Byzantine Ravenna and even of the baptistery in Florence building of the 11th century which Brunelleschi and his colleagues believed to be a cathedral of Mars reshaped for Christian worship (King, 2000). His primary objective was to abandon entirely the medieval heritage even if the lack of historical knowledge makes the break through less absolute than he intends. Brunelleschi’s rise to fame in his day is connected with a medieval building rather than Renaissance. His childhood Florence’s cathedral (Duomo built during the 14th century) had only a temporary covering over the space where the transepts and the nave cross. In 1418, the fathers of Florence addressed a monumental problem that they had been ignoring for decades; the immense hole in the roof of their cathedral. Years after years, the winter rains and the sun had streamed in over Santa Maria del Fiore high altar or the preferable place for the altar. Their forefathers had begun the cathedral in 1296 to display the status of Florence as one of the cultural and economic capitals in Europe developing productive on high finance and the wool and silk trades. There was a decision that the structure’s enormous crowning glory would be the largest cupola on Earth, ensuring the cathedral would be â€Å"more beautiful and useful,† more honorable and influential† than any other building ever built. The Cupola was the fitting evidence of a culture that was fighting for the ideology of the immortality of the individual soul and struggling to frame a constitution that would unite individual liberty for the highest common good. For many decades later, no one seemed to have an advancing idea of how to build a dome nearly 150feets across, more so starting 180 feet above the ground and atop the existing walls. Their building

Postoperative Nausea and Vomiting Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2750 words

Postoperative Nausea and Vomiting - Essay Example Clinically, however, there is a serious need to control PONV since undertreated, PONV may lead to life-threatening complications, such as, wound dehiscence, pulmonary aspiration of gastric contents, bleeding, dehydration, and even electrolyte imbalances if continued unabated. Rapid advances in surgical techniques have brought in a paradigm shift in approach to surgical practice, where the order of the day is minimal access and rapid discharge from the hospital, and day care surgeries are rapidly replacing the convention surgical practice of prolonged hospital stay. Even very mild PONV may result in delayed hospital discharge, decreased patient satisfaction, and increased use of resources including medical and surgical care, intravenous fluids, drugs, and other supplies. PONV is the major cause of unanticipated admission to hospital following day-case surgery (Gan, 2006), and from these angles, prevention and management is of utmost importance, and for the reason given above, the nurs es must implement the management strategies that consider evidence from research. Nurses have responsibilities to prevent and relieve postoperative nausea and vomiting. ... Most of the nursing practice for management of PONV goes by traditional practice, not by evidence. Classically a majority of PONV is caused by the effects anesthetic agents on the brain and other related perioperative factors. With the advent of newer pharmacologic agents that are used to induce anesthesia, it is now important to update knowledge on the management of PONV. There is a huge body of literature of PONV management that covers pharmacological, dietary, and behavioral interventions that may culminate into an updated development of assessment and management guidelines (Eberhart et al., 2004). Moreover, it will open an opportunity to identify the gaps in knowledge, so further research can be carried out. Therefore it was decided that a literature review will be undertaken to find out evidence from published research literature in the current time to examine evidence and rationale for nursing practices in PONV, and the findings will be presented in an organized manner so these can be utilized as a guideline in the practice. Strategy of Literature Review To build a scientific basis of evidence, a comprehensive literature search was undertaken and then evaluated. For the purpose of the review of literature to support the rationale, need, and continuation of the project, the author conducted an exhaustive literature search. Electronic databases accessed for information included: CINHAL, Medline and Pubmed along with the Google Scholar internet search engine. Moreover MEDLINE, EMBASE, and CINAHL and Cochrane databases were searched to identify relevant literature on prevention and management of Postoperative nausea and vomiting. UMI Proquest Digital Dissertations, ISI Web of Science, Cambridge Scientific Abstracts,

Cities Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2750 words

Cities - Essay Example Therefore to fulfill these requirements people come together and build a city where they facilitate every possible requirement of human nature. What makes a place a city are the people who live there, their interactions and activities. It’s not only perceived as a gathering of millions of people but also by the constructions and infrastructure designed for man’s feasibility and convenience. Kevin Lynch describes an environmental image in three components: identity, structure and the meaning. The identity for which the city is known and distinguished, the structure- how it is build and designed and then the meaning is the relation people have with it (Lynch, 1960). In 18000 only 3% of the world population lived in the urban areas; However, by 1900, 14% were urbanites. With time the percentage increased and today we have urbanized the maximum possible earth and with the rate of population increasing the entire world would be urbanized soon. Cities are known as a place of opportunities where money, services employment are centralized. In rural areas it is difficult for people to achieve the requirements the way they can in cities. Living in cities facilitates people with numerous opportunities, luxuries and diversities like transportation, education and jobs. It is an established place where one can actually promote his way towards success. Business generates the demand of labor which eventually results in employment to bag money. People in rural areas have low income and huge families to make both ends meet they need money for which they belief city is a better place. For instance a farmer or a fisherman might not pull that money in a rural area as compared to that he can in city (Scott, 1981). City provides them with the opportunity of variety of jobs to all calipers of people. A reason to this is also the population density in urban areas, more people have numerous demands

Jose Rizal Epic Poem Essay Example for Free

Jose Rizal Epic Poem Essay A natural hero was born on 1861 His name was Jose Rizal A gifted child who studied foreign languages This great hero was the founder of La Liga Filipina. During his lifetime there was a war The Philippines was shattered to the ground.. Many uprisings were fought against the Spaniards! All of it failed until the Noble Jose Rizal came. His divine weapon was not a sword nor a gun But a small pen. A pen so great it united the Filipinos. His words inspired the hearts of all It spread all over the country like a wild fire The Spaniards heard it just like a wind whispering to them They locked Jose Rizal in a dark tiny chamber in a basement They tortured him.. Oh poor sir Jose Rizal.. Yet his hated grows and burns within his soul The Filipinos planned to free him They had worked so hard.. and it succeeded! Jose sighed.. What a beautiful sight But he said â€Å" Ill stay here to represent our nation† Andres Bonifacio another great hero said.. Are you sure Jose? And Jose replied with all my heart yes I am.. The Spaniards came with an army so great They have to leave Jose Rizal to the hands of the Evil Spaniards They confine him with a great heavy chains Tormented his life for trying to escape And one day the government ordered his death His death day was on December 30, 1896 There he was standing alone under the heavy rain Behind him a hundred gunman to shoot him dead. The leader shouted Fire! and then a gun echoed in the area, the Heroic Jose Rizal was shot in the back.. his eye sight blurred for the last time He felt the pain starts to erupt up to his spine he breathe for the very last time He looked up into the misty sky collapsing facing the gunman There he was lying dead on the bloody ground The Clouds weeps for his death All the Filipinos who watched him get shot screamed No! His death inflamed the hearts of the Filipinos

Rammed Earth As A Low Impact Building Environmental Sciences Essay

Rammed Earth As A Low Impact Building Environmental Sciences Essay Rammed earth is widely used as a construction material from past many years. It is a monolithic type of construction which is built by compacting successive layers of soil. Rammed Earth as a material has a wide range of advantages and utilizations. So, an approach to explore the rammed earth construction in temperate climate of India by understanding the techniques and methods of construction, the properties of the material and the use of rammed earth in from past till present as well as in future in described. The essay is a brief study of the material, its history, technology, climatic response, feasibility and stand in todays construction era. Experimental data have been included. 1. INTRODUCTION SUSTAINABLE BUILDING The sustainable building technology has seen a recent jump in interest in recent times. The rise in Global Warming has led Governments, to take speedy measures, to execute more environmental friendly practices. The government of UK has set up plans to reduce impact on earth by 60% by the year 2050 (DTI, 2007). Currently, the buildings in Europe contribute to 25-40% of the energy used by the society (UNEP, 2007). The energy used in a building can be summarised by, the embodied energy of material, the energy spent in transportation, that used in construction, the energy consumed in the use of building and lastly, the energy used in disposal of the building at the end of its life. This energy consumption can be reduced by using low impact material, which carries low embodied energy. The embodied energy contributes to 10% of the total energy consumed by the building (UNEP, 2007). The use of locally available material can reduce the transportation energy. Different environmental building technologies, such as passive design for buildings can be used to reduce the energy in use of the buildings. Thus the use and study of low impact building material has gained importance. SUSTAINABLE MATERIALS Sustainable materials have been used through centuries, but the environmental building technology, which has come out of the current environmental restraints, has set the revival of the old environment friendly materials. The locally available materials, which can be used without spending energy on transportation, manufacture of materials and even processing of raw materials, prove more economic, for energy consumption. Industrialised construction causes a lot of pollution. Thus the alternate methods of construction, viz, abode, rammed earth, stone, straw bale, hemp-lime, bamboo, cob, wood, earth-bag, wattle and daub among others. The traditional building methods have employed use of the natural materials in the past. Now, these materials and technologies, through study and experiment, are being reinvented, for efficient sustainable low impact use. Rammed Earth is one such material which is being revived as a low impact building material. The significance of this material in the history of architecture is worthless. Michael Crichton, an author describes, If you dont know history, then you dont know anything. You are a leaf that doesnt know it is part of a tree. This essay is an opportunity, to learn about the vernacular and modern use of Rammed earth. As rammed earth construction is found in different climatic zones, it also brings the necessity of considering the materials relation with various climate types. It is important to study the properties, techniques (both vernacular and modern) of building in load bearing and framed construction and also their response to climate and geographical context. This essay explores Rammed Earth, as a low impact building material. The study of its historic social context and its appropriateness in todays building scenario is also carried out. An analysis is made on the appropriateness of Rammed Earth, for contemporary architecture. RAMMED EARTH One of the oldest building methods, Rammed Earth is a (adjective) form of construction. Through centuries, this method has been used to build superior quality walls, which encompass the qualities a building should possess, viz. Strength, beauty and utility. Buildings made of rammed earth have stood strong for hundreds of years. In the past decade, the importance of rammed earth has considerably increased. In view of, the need of a more sustainable environment; as a material consuming less energy, yet providing a greater life span, Rammed Earth is being re invented as another low impact, energy efficient building material. The Rammed Earth walls are made using materials of earth, namely, lime, mud, gravel, chalk, etc. These constituents are easily available on any land, and hence, the Rammed Earth construction has been found on all continents, except, the Antarctica. Its favourability to any climate and measure of strength are proved by the many ancient earth buildings which still exist, eg. The Great Wall of China, China. Many earth structures sit in the foot of the Himalayas. Earth heritage can also be found in the countries of China, India, France, Morocco, Spain, South America, and Europe. 1.2 RAMMED EARTH CONSTRUCTION Rammed earth walls are constructed by compacting soil in the formwork. Usually damp soil from the site is used directly, or sieved, to remove the larger gravels in the soil. This soil is then added with suitable proportions of stabilizers. Initially animal blood was used as a stabilizer, as opposed to the cement, asphalt or lime stabilizers of today. Straw is used as reinforcement, and mixed in the soil batches. A layer of soil of thickness 150mm is placed in the formwork and then compacted with rammers. Once this layer gets settled, other layers of same thickness follow. The required height can be achieved by moving the formwork upward as the layers settle. The wall hardens almost as soon as the form work is removed. Rammed earth takes 2 years to cure. It gains compressive strength as it cures. Thus the construction is best done in warm weather, so the walls can dry and harden. 1.3 PROPERTIES Dry density Strength (compressive, tensile, shear) Durability Shrinkage Surface finish Thermal insulation Advantages Distinct appearance Natural and readily available Low embodied energy (a level similar to brick veneer construction) Unstablised earth is reusable post-demolition High moisture mass, hygroscopic helps regulate humidity Use of local soils supports sustainability practices. High thermal mass (though work is still underway to quantify its extent) Airtight construction achievable Traditional form of construction Modern methods are widely tried and tested overseas eg Australia Disadvantages Concerns over durability requires careful detailing Poor thermal resistance external walls require additional insulation Not all soil types are appropriate High levels of construction quality control are required Longer than average construction period Few modern examples exist in the UK relatively untested in UK climate. High clay content can cause moisture movement. Structures may need to accommodate this. No UK codes of practice Adding cement stabilisation can compromise environmental credentials 1.4 STABILISED EARTH CONSTRUCTION Though rammed earth is considered a strongly sustainable material, it has some shortcomings in relation with durability. Some of the factors in natural earth which need improvement are, water resistance, shrinkage, external surface protection and strength. For overcoming this problem, stabilisers are used. In olden times, lime or animal blood were used to stabilise the material, while modern construction uses lime, cement or asphalt emulsions. Some modern builders also use bottles, tires, or pieces of timber. Though stabilisers add to the carbon emission and thus the negative impact to some extent, they reduce uncertainty and risk. Hence, they are used. The most common stabiliser used is cement. It generally makes 6 to 7% of the total mixture. Characteristics of Stabilised Rammed Earth STRENGTH Strength of unstabilised Rammed Earth is 1MPa and that of stabilised Rammed Earth is 10MPa. Stabilised Rammed Earth is suitable for both load bearing and framed structure. FIRE SAFETY Earth is a non-combustible material. Rammed Earth walls can sustain fire for 9 hours. RESISTANCE TO MOISTURE Earth walls can control humidity. Unclad internal walls can hold humidity 40% 60% which is suitable for asthma patients, and storage of books. SOUND INSULATION Rammed Earth is effective for insulation. The design should accommodate provision of cavity walls for better sound separation. CONSERVATION OF FUEL AND POWER U-value of 300mm earth wall is H 1.5 3 W/m2K, therefore insulation needs adding in external wall applications. MATERIALS AND WORKMANSHIP Material adequacy can be found out by sampling, lab testing or precedence. The quality of workmanship can only be derived against specification, test panels, etc. 1.5 DESIGN ISSUES STABILISED RAMMED EARTH walls need added protection. Hence additional measures are required to be taken while designing rammed earth construction. 1.51 INSULATION As discussed earlier, rammed earth has some shortcomings. Rammed earth has poor thermal performance, in some areas. Here, extra insulation is required. Earth walls breathe. They absorb moisture and then let it evaporate. Rammed earth is hygroscopic. Wherever walls have external cladding, the cladding systems should be vapour permeable. It is wise to consider vapour permeable walls for both unstabilised and stabilised walls, to reduce condensation build up on the inside face of insulation. When moisture is allowed to escape from the external face, the permeability is of less concern while specifying internally applied insulation. External Insulation Wall needs to be protected from weathering. Thermal mass should be exposed internally. Some types of insulation renders are described below. Insulating render rammed earth with insulating render Figure: showing insulation Source: http://www.greenspec.co.uk/rammed-earth.php. Insulation Board and Render rammed earth and insulation board and render Figure: showing insulation Source: http://www.greenspec.co.uk/rammed-earth.php. Insulation materials: breathing insulation: cellulose slab, composite wood wool board (not cement-based), wood fibre board, cork, hemp, and hemp-lime. Render: limecrete, mineral render, plaster, proprietary permeable renders. Rain screen Cladding rammed earth and rainscreen cladding Figure: showing rain screen cladding Source: http://www.greenspec.co.uk/rammed-earth.php Insulation materials: breathing insulation: cellulose slab, composite wood wool board (not cement-based), wood fibre board, cork, sheeps wool, hemp, and hemp-lime.Cladding: wood, tiles, slate, board and polymer-based render, proprietary cladding systems. B) INTERNAL INSULATION In case of internal insulation, the natural look of the exterior is maintained, but the available thermal mass on the inside is lost. rammed earth internal insulation Figure: Free standing studwork with infill insulation. Source: http://www.greenspec.co.uk/rammed-earth.php. Insulation materials: Cellular glass, Mineral wool slab, expanded polystyrene, Phenolic foam, Polyisocyanurate (PIR), Polyurethane (PUR). 1.52 WEATHER PROTECTION Protection Given By the Roof rammed earth overhanging eaves Figure: The eaves provide protection from rain. Source: http://www.greenspec.co.uk/rammed-earth.php. Footings and Base rammed earth footing and base Figure: The DPC should be finished flush with the wall surface to avoid splash. Source:http://www.greenspec.co.uk/rammed-earth.php 2.0 HISTORICAL USE Archaeological evidence can date entire cities constructed of earth back over 10,000 years. All of the great civilisations of the Middle East were constructed with mud brick and rammed earth Assyria, Babylon, Persia, and Sumeria. Rammed earth construction was used to construct countless monuments, temples, ziggurats, churches, and mosques. Many of these structures (the Great Wall of China being one) have stood the test of time and are still standing today. Rammed earth construction originated in China, in the Neolithic age. Rammed Earth remains have been found in the archaeological sites of Yangzhou and Langham cultures of the yellow river valley, dating back to 5000 BC. By 2000 BC, the use of this material spread across china. Rammed Earth was commonly used for building walls and foundations. The 4000 year old, Great Wall of China has also been originally constructed in Rammed Earth, known there as Taipa. Its outer covering of stones and bricks, made later, gives it an appearance of stone wall. Foundations dating 5000BC have been discovered in Assyria. The core of the sun pyramid in Teotihuacan, Mexico, built between 300 and 900 AD, consists of approximately 2 million tons of Rammed Earth. Rammed Earth developed as a construction technique in various parts of the world independently. It had great influence in the Middle East Countries, China and Europe. It also became popular in Africa and America. The Romans built many earth structures throughout Europe. 2.1 GLOBAL DISTRIBUTION The early human shelters were caves. So, the use of earth construction is believed to have started as extensions to caves, such as mounds of earth at cave entrances, or cut earth, etc. The Rammed Earth building technique developed in several places independently. Man spread its use to different locations with his travelling for hunting. Rammed Earth structures are made from soil removed from the ground. The soil which has appropriate proportions of clay soil and sandy silt, is suitable for construction. The regions with abundance of such soil make use of earth construction. This soil with silt, sand and clay together is found in various locations, but is usually found in hilly areas, edges of large river valleys, mountainous regions with glacial tilt. The Himalayan ranges have many still existing examples of Rammed Earth structures. Ladakh, Bhutan, Nepal are regions where Rammed Earth practices were popular. Rammed Earth continues to be promoted in the country of Bhutan. Traditional Rammed Earth was prepared by ramming natural soil in small batches in a vertical formwork. The regions, which cannot provide soil favourable for preparing sun dried clay bricks, or timber; made use of rammed earth as a construction material. The desert sections of the Great Wall of China, Potala Palace in Lhasa, are made of Rammed Earth. Rammed Earth was also used to build fortification in North Africa and Spain. In Europe, rammed earth technology was used in vernacular style in the late middle ages, and continues to be used in Africa today. 2.2 METHOD OF CONSTRUCTION http://www.historicrammedearth.co.uk/indian_rammed_earth.png Soil was removed from the ground and used for construction. It was sieved if found necessary. Straw and lime, mixed into the soil, were used as additives to increase the strength of structure. The soil was then dropped into a formwork in layers of 150mm high. The layer is compacted using heavy rammers. On compaction of one layer another layer is laid and the same procedure is carried out, till the formwork is full. The formwork is then moved vertically to accommodate more earth. Once the formwork is moved vertically, the horizontal timbers are removed from the wall, leaving characteristic holes. Figure: Urdu manuscript showing Rammed Earth Construction. Historic Formworkrammed earth formwork Formwork is made up of timber sides. These are held together by vertical timbers connected to horizontal timbers which go through the wall. This formwork design is found in Nepal and Morocco. In some places, stones are placed over horizontal timbers to allow their removal. The traditional rammed earth wall can thus be constructed with little labour and without recourse to temporary works. Figure: Rammed Earth Formwork 2.3 MODES OF FAILURE AND REPAIR TECHNIQUES The strength present in unstabilised earth construction, also owes to a less understood phenomenon of suction. The pressure difference between air and water components of soil creates the interface of water and air to curve. This curve accommodates pressure difference, bringing about surface tension. The combination of surface tension and pressure difference creates a strong attractive force in the pores, thus strengthening the soil wall structure. (Jaquin P.A.) A study on failures has been made extensively by Paul Jaquin of Durham University. Considering failure mechanism of historic structures can be utilised in taking measures for rectification and prevention for future. Cracking is the main mode of failure in Rammed earth structures. A study of presence of water, for strength is also important. Water A small amount of water can add strength to the structure. Excess of this water can also lead to failure. In the later case, structure becomes saturated, loses strength, then integration and finally leads to complete destruction of the building. When a structure is not maintained, Water enters a building. It can enter the wall when the roof is open. Slurry is formed on the top of the wall and the material moves downward, leading in complete erosion of the wall. The water flows through the walls and evaporates through the surface, leaving precipitated version of salt in the pores. This salt expands and cracks the pores and leads to removal of fine grained surface. Use of permeable cement covering on the surface is not recommended, as water gets trapped and movement might occur. Use of less permeable material like brick wall also poses danger, if the water level increases leading to loss of structural integrity. The use of masonry to protect earth walls had been used in China and Spain to protect walls from the threat posed by artillery. Cracking: Cracks are formed in walls due to unsaturation of soil. The tensile stress in soil is less, which leads to this unsaturation. Crack Stitching: As a treatment to the cracks formed in buildings, crack stitching is applied. This method is applied with utmost care, so as to not induce any more stresses in the cracks. Hence Soft Stitching is practiced. This involves application of similar material across the crack. This provides similar stiffness to the material, and thus works well in repair of large cracks in earthen structures Crack stitching was carried out for a monument in Ladakh, India, by Jogn Hurd in 2004. The technique he used is as follows. A buttress is placed at the base of the slope. Soft ties are introduced across the crack to create structural integrity. A mud brick staple is constructed across the crack, to half the thickness of wall. Part of the staple is cut and hemp matting placed inside the cut. Mortared sundried bricks are then placed within the cut, forming a solid staple wall. Seismic Protection: Rammed Earth is constructed in horizontal layers. Once one layer is complete, the formwork is raised upward for another layer. Every layer is known as a lift. Historical evidence shows that materials such as, straw, lime, stones, brick are placed between lifts. These materials act as tie beams across the walls, tying them together and thus help in seismic protection (Hurd,2006). In some sites of Spain built in 1504, lengths of timber were placed in the wall while ramming. Their appropriate placement, proves an understanding of seismic design. These timers were first made circular, then covered in a lime and straw mortar, which was then rammed within the wall. These timbers were placed at 1.6m intervals, in a ring, throughout the building. 2.4 EXAMPLE C:UsersVarunDesktopbasgo1.jpg Figure: showing castle made of rammed earth at basgo, India. Source: http://www.historicrammedearth.co.uk/india.htm The site at Basgo consists of four distinct structures, three temples and a fort. The fort (Basgo Rabtan Lhartsekhar Castle) was built first and is the only structure made from rammed earth. The rammed earth section stands in the centre of the site, and consists of a mainly ruined set of walls, with no roof structure. A large crack is visible in the face of one of the walls which were repaired by in 2000. The castle withstood a three year siege in 1684, but may have been destroyed by invading Sikhs in around 1819 and definitely by 1843. 3.0 CONTEMPORARY USE The Rammed Earth construction received worldwide interest, owing to its non dependency on materials such as cement, ease of availability, and potential for recycling. The most important factor for its resurgence is its sustainable longevity. Rammed Earth is now being treated as a structural material and rules for designing have developed accordingly. In the 15th century, rammed earth was brought to Europe. The 19th century, America saw resurgence of Rammed Earth as a construction Technology. The book Rural Economy, by S.W. Johnson popularised it in the states. The famous historic landmark, Burough House Plantation in 1821, is the largest complex of built Earth in the US. After 1920, for almost 30 years government spent a lot of money on research of Earth structure construction. It even built low cost houses which became very successful. But, after WW2, the use of earth as a building material declined as modern building materials and technology were available at economic rates. Contractors and engineers found modern construction easier. Thus, use of rammed earth declined. 3.1 GLOBAL DISTRIBUTION The modern era of Rammed Earth can be seen particularly in California, Western Australia and UK. Australia has rich granite deposits and lateritic soils, suitable for construction of Rammed Earth. The property owners find all suitable material on their site itself, or nearby. This type of construction proves to be economical and long lasting. Thus the popularity grew in Australia. The technique has observed growth in the southwest, around Tucson, Arizona and Las Cruces and Albuquerque, New Mexico, California, Colorado. 3.2 METHOD OF CONSTRUCTION The method is similar to historic construction at large. All the old practices employed unstabilised earth, rammed on a raised masonry stem, protected by roof hangings. Today, concrete is used in the structure. A concrete stem must project 6inches above grade. Foundations are in the shape of an inverted T. In some places, rubble filled trenches are packed with reinforced concrete beam 10 inches thick and wider than the wall, to hold the ledges. Earth material is stabilised using Portland Cement in the weight of 5%. Softer earth plaster, stabilised with asphaltic emulsions, is used to clad unstabilised earth walls. The formwork, now famous as concrete forming panel, is made of sturdy steel frame and special plywood inset, suited for rammed earth. Pneumatic ramming is used instead of the ancient hand ramming. The strength obtained by both is same. 3.4 EXAMPLE C:UsersVarunDesktopCAMR2FM1.jpg Fig: Rammed earth house in Bangalore, India. Source :http://rammedearth.blogspot.co.uk/2007/09/rammed-earth-in-india.html This is home was designed by Chitra Vishwanath Architects for Nishwath Hassan and Prakash Iyer, a Bangalore-based couple in their mid-30s. The walls are 9 thick. They have sufficient self-weight to not need any other attachment or reinforcement. There is a nice rich mud mortar between the plinth beam (theres a beam above the stone foundation) on which the bricks rest and then the rammed earth. The bricks or mud blocks can be optionally done away with. The self-weight of the wall structure is sufficient to hold it in place. In India we always have built in brick, stone and cement and reinforced cement concrete. Except for the roofs, beams and concrete columns (if there are any) steel is not used to reinforce walls. Our structural engineers say its not necessary. The load bearing capacity of the RE walls or any wall is dependent on their own strength and by self-weight they hold well in placeThe soil that was excavated from the basement was used to build the house. It was mixed by hand with sand and 5% cement then transported without the use of machinery. Its important that the design makes way for hot air (vertically up) and brings light into the right parts without using humungous openings. Helps in controlling cost of structure too. These Ecological homes that we make are cheaper than the conventional designer homes in the same city 4.0 APPROPRIATENESS OF RAMMED EARTH IN DIFFERENT CLIMATE TYPES The behaviour and function of rammed earth structures depend upon the climate they are exposed to. Rammed earth is an ideal choice for climates with distinct variation in day and night temperatures. Rammed earth is generally found in dry climates eg. Mediterranean rim, through central Asia and in parts of China and Himalayan regions. Whereas in tropical climates where the difference between day and night time temperatures is not much, Rammed earth does not work well. Although Rammed earth does not work well in excessively humid climates, evidence show that rammed earth structures can withstand severe rainstorm and snow fall for a short duration. A brief overview of different climates is given below. Temperate Climates Rammed Earth is placed in parts exposed to sunlight. The special properties of rammed earth alloy it to store the heat from the day, and release it at night, thus providing warmth. In these regions, walls are insulated to prevent heat loss. Hot, Arid Climates Buildings of high thermal mass work potentially here, in the deserts. The wall retards the passage of heat from the external face to the internal face. It even radiates the heat gained in the day time, back at night. Hot Humid Climates Night temperatures remain elevated in this environment, thus challenging the strength of rammed earth. rammed earth is placed away from direct sunlight so that it does not gain extra heat, as it will get overheated. 5.0 Tropical climate 5.1 Impact of climate 5.2 Local Availability of RE 5.3 Other uses of RE 5.4 Other factors deemed of interest. Use http://www2.cemr.wvu.edu/~rliang/ihta/papers/11%20FINAL%20Paul%20Jaquin_paper_workshop.pdf 5.5 Vernacular style in temperate climate. 5.6 Whether it has been low impact Page 12 lax 5.7 Whether it is suitable for the climate 5.8 Which other materials are suitable for temperate climate. 6.0 Conclusion Appropriateness in Contemporary architecture. The likely future for the application of rammed earth is as: Thermal mass. Internal load-bearing unstabilised walls. External load-bearing stabilised walls. (ref. Jaquin P.A. http://www.historicrammedearth.co.uk/Rammed_earth_structural_engineer.pdf) ( http://www.historicrammedearth.co.uk/india.htm) ( REF: http://www.greenhomebuilding.com/pdf/buildingstandards_sepoct98_ramearth.pdf) (Ref: http://www.rammedearthliving.com.au/index.php?option=com_contentview=articleid=50:in-which-climates-does-rammed-earth-perform-the-bestcatid=31:generalItemid=46) (reference: http://www.greenspec.co.uk/rammed-earth.php) :http://www.greenspec.co.uk/rammed-earth.phpreference: Rammed Earth: Design and construction guidelines, Peter Walker et al, BRE 2005

Contemporary Issues in Criminology

Contemporary Issues in Criminology Critically discuss its theoretical underpinnings and evaluate whether this theoretical approach serves as a useful explanation of criminal behavior in modern Britain. The idea of cultural criminology indicates both exact viewpoints and extensive orientations that have come forward in criminology, sociology, and criminal justice over the past few years. More distinctively, cultural criminology stands for a perception performed by Ferrell Sanders (1995), and equally in employment by Redhead (1995) and others (Kane 1998) interlinks prà ©cised academic threads to discover the meeting of cultural and criminal procedures in current social life. Cultural criminology sees the sights of the numerous traditions in which cultural dynamics interlink with the performances of crime and crime control in contemporary social arrangement; put in a different way, cultural criminology lays emphasis on the centrality of meaning and demonstration in the structure of crime as temporary occasion, sub cultural effort, and social issue. From this view, the suitable topic material of criminology goes beyond traditional ideas of crime and crime causation to contain images of illegal behavior and representative displays of law enforcement; accepted culture constructions of crime and criminal act; and the mutual sentiment that animate criminal events, awareness of criminal risk, and public labors at crime control. This widespread cultural focal point, cultural criminologists argue, permits academics and the public identical to better appreciate crime as significant human activity, and to break through more intensely the contested politics of crime control. At a basic stage cultural criminology incorporates in this way the imminent of sociological criminology with the directions on the way to the representation and mode accessible by the field of cultural studies. Inside this extensive union of the criminological and the cultural, though, cultural criminology has come out from a quite more multifaceted co-evolution of sociology, criminology, and cultural analysis. An essential first point in this emergence is the job of academics related with the Birmingham School of cultural studies, the National Deviancy Conference, and the â€Å"new criminology† in Great Britain throughout the 1970s. Reconceptualizing the character of modern power, these academics discovered the cultural and ideological extents of social class, observed relaxation worlds and prohibited subcultures as sites of stylized conflict and alternative sense, and investigated the mediated ideologies motivating social and lawful control. Any regulation that is living and affluent is a topic to ordinary processes of regeneration and refreshment. Criminology is the alike. It has had its humanist Marxist, feminist, and rationalist, between other reappearances and is presently bein g delighted to one more ‘paradigm shift’ in the shape of a self-styled ‘cultural criminology’. A current unique issue is Theoretical Criminology (2004), which was dedicated to the appearance and predictions of this new kid on the rational block. According to Hayward and Young’s opening essay of the particular topic, cultural criminology is: ‘the placing of crime and its control in the background of culture; that is, observing both crime and the organization of control as cultural products –as inspired creations. (Hayward and Young 2004: 259). The latest criminology’s focal point on top of all on the method in which human actors generate meaning and try to find to use this diagnostic focal point to discover the attractions of disobedience or rule contravention activity (ibid.: 260, 266). Casting its academic custom back to 1960’s radicalism and the concentration to strangers and unusual subcultures towards which that radical ism leaned in criminological job. Certainly cultural criminology describes it self as, and revels in, working ‘at the edges of ‘conventional criminology, for two purposes, firstly, because ‘it is here, in these forgotten gaps that the feature of crime so often opens out, and secondly for the reason that conventional criminology is conquered by ‘managerial rationalization and statistical difficulty. Certainly, whether criminology actually does present a new rational attempt rather than a reasonable amplification of earlier work on unusual subcultures is it self arguable –admirable of a split paper and an appropriate chronological likeness. There are connections between crime and culture. Criminal behavior is, more regularly than not, subcultural behavior. From the interactionist criminology of the Chicago School and Edwin Sutherland to the subcultural theories of Cohen, Cloward and Ohlin, and others, criminologists have long accredited that events and i ndividualities named criminal are classically produced inside the limitations of unusual and criminal subcultures. In this sense, a lot of what we acquire to be crime is fundamentally communal behavior; whether carried out by one person or lots of; exacting criminal acts are habitually prepared within and initiated by subcultural crowd. Despite the fact that the limitations/boundaries may stay ill-defined, and the relationship may shift in unpleasant numbers and stage of assurance, these subcultures compose ultimate human links for those who partake in them. Biker, hustler, Blood and Crip, pimp and prostitute all name subcultural networks as much as individual personalities. Since Sutherland and the Chicago School identified a half century ago, and as immeasurable case studies have since established, criminal subcultures integrate way further than easy immediacies of private relationship. To have a word of a criminal subculture is to distinguish not only an organization of people, but a set of connections of symbols, denotation, and awareness. Components of a criminal subculture are taught and discuss â€Å"intentions, force, rationalizations, and attitudes; expand detailed conventions of language, look, and appearance of self; and in so doing contribute, to better or minor grades, in a subculture, a combined way of life. A large number of this subcultural meaning, exploit, personality, and condition is planned around style, that is, something like the common aesthetic of the subcultures members. As previous researchers have established, delicacies of cooperative style describe the sense of crime and deviance for subcultural contestantants, manager of legal control, clients of arbitrated crime descriptions, and others. If we are to understand both the terror and the plea of skinheads, Bloods and Crips, graffiti writers, zoot suiters, impolite boys, drug users, and others, we have to be able to make sense not only of their criminal acts, but of their group aesthetics as well. Katzs study, for instance, has related criminal acts and aesthetics by investigating the styles and symbolic meanings which appear inside the daily dynamics of criminal proceedings and criminal subcultures. By paying attention to dark sunglasses and white undershirts, to accurate styles of walking, talking, and if not introducing ones criminal character, Katz has outlined the alternative deviant culture, the coherent deviant ‘a ‘esthetic in which badasses, cholos, punks, youth gang members, and others take part. In these cases, as in other models of crime on and off the street, the significance of criminality is secured in the style of its collective performance. The bikers ritually rebuild motorbike, the gang members sports clothing and tattoos, the graffiti writers strange street pictures, and the skinheads aggressively challenging music compose the vital cultural and subcultural equipment out of which criminal schemes and criminal individuals are raised and demonstrated. For once more, contribution in a criminal subculture, or in the culture of crime, funds participation in the symbolism and style, the shared aesthetic atmosphere, of criminality. From earlier on labor within the British cultural studies tradition to Katz and more modern criminologists, studies have exposed that representation( symbolism) and style not only form criminal subcultures, but interlink with the wider social and official associations in which these subcultures are wedged. Criminal subcultures and their styles both breed out of class, age, gender, ethnic, and legal differences, and by turns duplicate and oppose these social mistake lines. And this interaction of subcultural style, difference, and power in turn reminds us of Beckers classic criminological command, that we must observe not only criminal subcultures, but the lawful and political authorities who build these subcultures as criminal. When we do, we find these authorities both acting in response to subcultural styles, and themselves utilizing symbolic and stylistic approaches of their own in opposition to them. The criminalization attempts of legal and political supporters show again the control of cultural forces; in criminalizing cultural and subcultural actions, and campaigning for communal support, ethical capitalists and legal auth orities influence legal and political structures, but conceivably more so structures of mass symbolism and perception. To appreciate the actuality of crime and criminalization, subsequently, a cultural criminology ought to report not only for the dynamics of criminal subcultures, but for the dynamics of the gathered media too. Nowadays, arbitrated pictures of crime and criminal violent behavior wash over us in wave after wave, and in so doing help form public insights and strategies in look upon crime. But obviously these modern cases constructed on prior arbitrated structures of crime and control. The criminalization of marijuana in the United States a half century ago was forecasted on an attempt to awaken the public to the threat dealing with it by means of `a didactic campaign recitations the drug, its recognition, and evil consequences. Forceful gang behavior and police attack on zoot suiters in the 1940s were assault by the increase of an unmistakably hostile symbol in Los Angeles newspapers. In the mid-1960s, shocking media reports of rape and assault placed the circumstance for a permissible campaign in opposition to the Hells Angels; and at approximately the matching time, lawful harassments on British mods and rockers were lawful throughout the medias consumption of sensitive symbols.† In the 1970s, the mutual relations amid the British mass media and criminal justice system formed a discernment that mugging was a terrifying new injures of crime. And throughout the 1980s and untimely 1990s, mediated horror legends justified wars on drugs, gangs, and graffiti in the United States, and shaped instants of mediated moral panic over child cruelty and child pornography in Great Britain. This development away from penal borders, this combination of conflicting scholarly viewpoints, this centered on positioned cultural dynamics, all naming prospects not only for a serious cultural criminology, but a kind of postmodern cultural criminology on top. Current social, feminist, and cultural speculations are increasingly moving further than penal restrictions and distinct classes to generate artificial, postmodern outlooks on social and cultural life. Despite the fact that patent by their assorted and different components, these perceptions allocate some wide-ranging thoughts, between them the concept that the on a daily basis culture of persons and groups integrates commanding and contradictory extent of style and sense. The symbolism and style of social interaction, the culture of everyday life, in this way materializes a contested political ground, representing samples of dissimilarity, supremacy, and opportunity. And these samples are in turn tangled with superior struct ures of mediated information and amusement, cultural manufacture and expenditure, and official and political authority. Seeing that the type of cultural criminology outlined here expands, it can incorporate criminology keen on these artificial lines of located inquest now rising under large captions like postmodernism and cultural studies. Cultural criminology therefore offers criminologists the chance to improve their own perceptions and perspectives on crime with approaching from other disciplines, whilst at the same time providing for their social group in cultural studies, the sociology of culture, media studies, and somewhere else priceless prospects on crime, criminalization, and their association to cultural and political procedures. Meandering or breaching the limitations of criminology in sort to create a cultural criminology in this sense destabilizes contemporary criminology less than it increases and enlivens it. Cultural criminology expands criminologys field to compris e worlds predictably measured external to it: gallery art, trendy music, media companies and texts, style. In the equal way, it institutes criminology into contemporary arguments over these worlds, and labels criminological points of view as crucial to them. The particular relations between culture and crime, and the wider relationship among criminology and contemporary social and cultural life, are both explained within cultural criminology. References: Ferrell J. (1999) Cultural Criminology, pages 395-418, Annual Review Of Sociology. Vol.25 http://www.albany.edu/scj/jcjpc/vol3is2/culture.html http://www.culturalcriminology.org/ O’ BRIEM, M. (2005) what is cultural about cultural criminology? British Journal Criminology, [Online] Available: URL: E:UniModulesWhat is Cultural About Cultural Criminology O’Brien 45 (5) 599 British Journal of Criminology.htm [1

Indecision, Hesitation and Delay in Shakespeares Hamlet - Needless Delay? :: The Tragedy of Hamlet Essays

Hamlet's Delay The question of why Hamlet delays in taking revenge on Claudius for so long has puzzled readers and audience members alike. Immediately following Hamlet's conversation with the Ghost, he seems determined to fulfill the Ghost's wishes and swears his companions to secrecy about what has occurred. The next appearance of Hamlet in the play reveals that he has not yet revenged his father's murder. In Scene two, act two, Hamlet gives a possible reason for his hesitation. "The spirit that I have seen / May be a devil, and the devil hath power / T' assume a pleasing shape" (2.2.627-629). With this doubt clouding his mind, Hamlet seems completely unable to act. This indecision is somewhat resolved in the form of the play. Hamlet comes up with the idea of the play that is similar to the events recounted by the ghost about his murder to prove Claudius guilty or innocent. Due to the king's reaction to the play, Hamlet attains the belief that the Ghost was telling the truth the night of the appar ition. In Hamlets mind, it is now his duty to avenge his father's murder. This is where the real problem of inaction enters the play. Later that night, Hamlet has a perfect opportunity to kill Claudius, when he sees the King kneeling in prayer. He wonders if this is the time to kill him and get it over with, but decides not to. He claims that he does not want Claudius to go to heaven, so he would rather kill him when he is committing a sin. If this is the case, then why doesn't he simply wait till Claudius has completed his prayer, accuse him of the murder and kill him in his sin of denial. Instead, Hamlet goes to the chamber of his mother and passes up his best opportunity at revenge. The argument can be made, however, that it is not a fear of killing that causes this inaction. He does not display an inability to end someone's life when killing Polonius. He neither hesitates nor capitulates in sending Rosencrantz and Guildenstern to their executions. Why then would the prince of Denmark he sitate to kill the one man he most justly could? Many literary believe that his inaction is the result of a vicarious Oedipus complex. Those who concur with this theory say that Hamlet, in his subconscious mind, has a desire to do exactly what his uncle has done; that is, get rid of the king so that he can have Gertrude for himself.

The Physiological Breakdown of Hamlet Essay -- The Tragedy of Hamlet

The Physiological Breakdown of Hamlet      Ã‚   In Shakespeare's masterpiece Hamlet, the main character, Hamlet is overcome by a physiological breakdown. Hamlet was a sensitive man who was destroyed by a corrupt environment. Hamlet's dead father, the deeds of his uncle and mother, and the frequency of death caused the destruction of Hamlet.      Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   First of all, the loss of any close family member is very traumatic. Hamlet is not immune to such effects. In the first of Hamlet's soliloquies, Hamlet cries "How weary, stale, flat and unprofitable Seem to me all the uses of this world! Fie on't! ah fie!'tis an unweeded garden, That grows to seed; things rank and gross in nature Possess it merely" (III. ii. 134-137). It is obvious that this is a window to Hamlet's tortured soul. This is only the beginning of the end for Hamlet. In Act I. Scene iv. Hamlet confronts the spirit of his dead father. This is also disturbing to Hamlet. John S. Wilks writes in J. Leeds Barroll's Shakespeare Studies how meeting the ghost of his father "...throws his conscience into doubt and error, must naturally begin with the malign source of that confusion, the Ghost" (119). Hamlet is also incensed when he learns the reason for his father's torture. Old Hamlet was murdered by his brother when he was sleeping. T his leaves Old Hamlet walking in limbo for his afterlife. After learning this, Hamlet decrees "O all you host of heaven! O Earth! What else? And shall I couple hell?" (I. v. 92-93). Also knowing that his father was miserable in the afterlife weighed heavily on Hamlet's mind (Knight 20). Clearly, the death of his father and speaking to the ghost of his father started the corruption of Hamlet.    The deeds of his uncle and his mot... ...rruption of Hamlet can be attributed to the ghost of Hamlet's father, the actions of his mother and uncle and the many deaths that occur in this play. Hamlet is a sensitive man who could not take all trauma of all the events that happened in his life. His corruption was the only way for him to escape the tribulations he faced.    Works Cited Knight, G. Wilson. The Wheel of Fire. London: Oxford University Press, 1930. Mack, Maynard, et al, eds. The Norton Anthology of World Masterpieces. Sixth ed. Vol 2. New York: Norton, 1992. Skura, Meredith Anne. "Hamlet and Psychoanalysis" Shakespeare: The Tragedies. Ed. Robert B. Heilman. Englewood Cliffs: MLA, 1984. 84-93. Wliks, John S. "The discourse of Reason: Justice and the Erroneous Conscience in Hamlet. Shakespeare Studies. Vol XVIII. Ed. J. Leeds Barroll. New York: MLA, 1986. 117-144.

Faults of Woven and Knit Fabric

Faults of woven fabric: Bar: It is a band running across the full width of cloth. Pick bar due ti difference in pick spacing Tension-bar due to difference in weft tension Weft-bar due to difference in material count, twist etc Box marks: The causes of box marks are – Dirty box Shuttle riding over the weft Dirty shuttle Dirty picking and ticks Broken pattern: It occurs due to wrong drawing of threads insertion of thee pick, incorrect lifting of warp threads. Broken pick: A pick missing of the fabric, due to rough shuttle eyes, poor winding and weft yarn breakage. Defective selvedge: Curled selvedge Cut selvedges Loppy selvedges Slack selvedges Pulled selvedge Tight selvedge Uneven selvedge Float stitches: A place where warp and weft yarns escape the required interlacement. If occurs for improper warp stop motion. Fuzzy: it occurs for the present of hairy and abraded yarns. Hang pick: A pick which is out of line and is a triangular shape. Missing ends: Gap of warp yarns is the main causes Reed marks: Due to this fault cloth shows irregular spacing between groups of warp yarns across the fabric width. Shuttle marks: Width way marks due to abrasion of warp yarns by the shuttle. Stain: Major problems on woven fabric Oil, Dust, Soil, Carbon particles in the air may cause stains. Uneven cloth: It produced when take up motion is faulty, broken ratchet wheel is also responsible. Some mechanical faults: Reed marks Shuttle flying out Shuttle trapping Loom hanging Loom stopping Weft cutting Bumping Knitting Faults: Holes: Holes are the result of yarn breakage. It occurs for the following causes – Uneven yarn Badly set of yarn feeder Knots, slubs etc in yarn Yarn tension is too high Yarn is too dry Drop stitches: Those are the result of a defective needle. It also occurs when a yarn is not properly fed during stitch formation. Cloth fall –out: it is an area consisting of drop sitiches lying side by side. Snags: It occurs when filament yarns are processing. It occurs for higher twist and lesser crimp elasticity. Double stitches: These occur due to badly knitted or non-knitted loops. Vertical stripes: It is observed as longitudinal gaps in the fabric. When the space between Wales is irregular it occurs. Horizontal stripes: Horizontal stripes are caused by unevenness in the courses. Soil stripes: Soil stripes can appear both in the direction of Wales as well as courses. Color fly: Color fly consists of singe fibres, brunches of fibre of yarn pieces in varying colors. Distorted stitches: Due to it if become unsettled fabric and fabric appearance is skitter. Write about BAN (Barium Activity Number): Barium activity Number = (? Ba(OH)? _2 Absorbed by mercerised cotton material)/(? Ba(OH)? _2 Absorbed by unmercerised cotton material) BAN is always greater than 100 Standard range of BAN 115 – 135 Highly mercerized range 140 – 150 possible If BAN < 115, Mercerization wille be uneven Write ablout Water Hardness: Hardness is a term applied to water denoting a measurement of its PH and metal salt contest. Classification of water according to hardness – DescriptionTotal hardness (Degree) Very soft 0 – 40 Soft 5 – 80 Shild 9-140 Fairly hard 15 -180 Hard 19 -300 Very hard > 300 Determination of water hardness: The following Reagents are required for hardness measermet Buffer solution EDTA (Ethelene Diamine Tetraacetate ) (. 02 N or . 01 M) Indicator solution 0. 05 gm (Solochromo black WDFA) Mixture of alcohol and tri-ethanol amine Calcium solution – Take 1 gm CaCO3 and dried at 1650C Cover with clock glass and add water (50-100 ml) Add 20. 5 ml HCl Warm and next Cool Transfer to one litre volumetric flask Determination of total Hardness: Total Hardness = (T? 1000)/V mg/L CaCO3 Where, V = Wt. f solution (50 -100) into conical breaker T = Total amount of EDTA used to get reddish tinge disappear. Weight loss in Pre-treatment: The weight of unscoured and scoured were taken separately at the same moisture content and then weight loos is measured in %. Weight loss = (Wt. of Unscoured fabric-Wt. of Scoured fabric )/(Wt. of Unscoured fabric) ? 100% Standar d range of Weight loss = 4 – 8% Fabric and knit: (Questions) Faults of woven and knit fabric. Different variables of woven fabric. BAN (Bariem activity number) Hardness measurement of H2O. Wt. loss in pre-treatment (Scouring, bleaching, desizing etc)

Translating Metaphores in the Catcher in the Rye

TRANSLATING COLLOQUIAL IDIOMS/METAPHORS IN THE CATCHER IN THE RYE: A COMPARISON OF METAPHORICAL MEANING RETENTION IN THE SPANISH AND CATALAN TEXTS MICHAEL O’MARA Catholic University of Valencia San Vicente Martir Michael. [email  protected] es 57 In spite of the novel's position among the American Library Association's list of the one hundred most frequently censored books, The Catcher in the Rye (1951), by J. D. Salinger, is widely considered to be one of the most significant literary works of the twentieth century, frequently found in high school literary curricula throughout Europe and North America.The controversy concerns its alleged profanity, vulgar language and treatment of sexual themes, elements that typify Holden's use of the English language, or his idiolect. Idiolect refers to individual speech. It is based on grammar, word selection, phrases, idioms, and includes pronunciation. Of particular note is the author’s use of italics to denote emphasis, or wher e accents fall when considering rhythm in, and among, certain words. It is possible that this practice was brought almost to perfection in The Catcher in the Rye, in replicating speech patterns in written language.Quite possibly, it has not been matched since. The author’s ability to capture rhythm and colloquial speech is, indeed, quite remarkable. This is especially obvious for readers who are fluent in, or are native speakers of American English. Consider how the author stresses groups of words: â€Å"Wuddaya mean so what? † (p. 41) â€Å"You don't do one damn thing the way you're supposed to† (p. 41) â€Å"She was blocking up the whole goddam traffic in the aisle† (p. 87) miscelanea: a journal of english and american studies 35 (2007): pp. 57-75 ISSN: 1137-6368 Michael O’MaraOther times, certain words are stressed: â€Å"What the hellja do that for? † (p. 41) â€Å"Well, don't get sore about it†¦ † (p. 82) â€Å"Which is som ething that gives me a royal pain in the ass. I mean if somebody yawns right while they’re asking you to do them a goddam favor† (p. 28) Finally, and perhaps most characteristic, the author stresses parts of words: â€Å"I mean I’m not going to be a goddam surgeon or a violinist or anything anyway† (p. 39) â€Å"It's not paradise or anything†¦ † (p. 55) â€Å"For Chrissake, Holden. This is about a goddam baseball glove† (p. 1) 58 Preserving the uniqueness of Holden Caulfield's idiolect has been a challenge for translators seeking to preserve the effect and the flavor of the discourse using the techniques that Salinger originally used, namely, stream of consciousness and dramatic monologue in which, directly and intimately, Holden tells his story in retrospect to the readers. This technique has the effect of reproducing the inner workings and thought processes of Holden —disjointed and random— and also provides dialogs that are remarkably fluid and natural.To represent Holden and his frustrations using the same register in another language is a daunting chore, indeed, especially since Holden attaches his own meanings to the language that he uses. Costello1 reminds us that Holden appropriates common expressions from his period and makes them his own. For example, his free and loose use of â€Å"and all† to end thoughts along with the affirmative â€Å"I really did† or â€Å"It really was† are repeated throughout the novel, helping to forge Holden's own distinct personality.Other authors have commented upon the importance of Holden’s speech in defining his character in relation to the readers: â€Å"†¦ his language, his own idiolect, full of idioms and colloquialisms, is the main feature that will contribute to Holden’s development as a character in his transition from adolescence to adulthood and his relationship with the reader†2. Although translating Hold en's idioms may present challenges, it may be one of the most important aspects of preserving the flavor of his idiolect and effect it has on readers.Holden Caulfield's idioms Like other languages, English is full of idioms such as â€Å"to break a leg† and â€Å"to pull someone's leg†. An idiom is a form of expression, grammatical construction, phrase, etc. , peculiar to a language; a peculiarity of phraseology approved by the usage of a language, and often having a signification other than its grammatical or logical one. 3 miscelanea: a journal of english and american studies 35 (2007): pp. 57-75 ISSN: 1137-6368 Translating colloquial idioms/metaphors in The Catcher in the Rye Idioms generally have three characteristics: 1.Their meaning cannot be deduced from their components or any arrangement thereof, and must be learned as a whole. If one were to interpret ‘to break a leg’ solely on the basis of its components it might be very difficult to realize tha t the actual meaning is positive, meaning to have a good time, not incur injury, especially when used in the imperative. Likewise, nowhere in the expression ‘to pull someone’s leg’ there appears any element that would suggest joking, or specifically, having someone believe things that are not true. 2. None of their constituents may be substituted with words of similar meaning.For example, if one were to substitute the word ‘fracture’ for ‘break’ in to ‘break a leg’, the meaning would be lost. Likewise, upon being the object of joking one could not say that he or she had had his or her leg ‘stretched’. 3. Finally, idioms cannot be syntactically modified. One would probably not be understood if one were to say ‘I had my leg broken’ meaning ‘I had a good time’; it would be similarly confusing to say ‘I had my leg pulled yesterday’ if one were to communicate that they were joke d with yesterday. Without any contextual information a learner of English might have little idea what these expressions mean.Clearly, the meaning in these phrases is figurative, or â€Å"expressing one thing in terms normally denoting another†4 and metaphorical where â€Å"a figure of speech in which a word or phrase denoting one kind of object or idea is used in place of another to suggest a similarity between them (as in the ship plows to sea)†. 5 For this reason, the idioms in question found in the book could be referred to as colloquial metaphors6 as some authors prefer: metaphors for the aforementioned semantic arguments and colloquial because they are metaphors which exist in the more informal registers, in this case, slang.But the term ‘colloquial idiom’ seems to be preferable in most research contexts7. For this reason I will refer to them as colloquial idioms/metaphors. This study focuses primarily on the pragmatic purpose of these metaphors since it is the idiolect of Holden Caulfield that is to be examined in its aesthetic effect and ‘flavor’. Therefore, not all metaphors found in Holden's idiolect were chosen. In fact, some metaphors are so common that it has been forgotten that they are metaphors, having been accepted into standard use.Such is the case with the great majority of phrasal verbs in English: ‘get up’, ‘get over’, etc. Also, there are many examples of colloquial word combinations repeated with some frequency in the novel, but they have not been included in the study as their metaphorical qualities are more abstract8 and might rather, and more appropriately, be studied as collocations, or words that are found to occur together, to examine their restrictions of usage in relation to other components (prepositions, verbs, etc. . Here are some examples that use the word ‘hell’: miscelanea: a journal of english and american studies 35 (2007): pp. 57-75 ISSN: 1137- 6368 59 Michael O’Mara hell of it as hell The hell out to bang hell (as a noun) The hell with it in hell 29, 61, 73,210 34,35, 37, 38, 94, 113 52, 179 53, 115, 69 146 TABLE 1: Common word combinations not included in the study and their page numbers Theoretical framework We are in agreement with Lorenzo, M. et al. in that the first step a translator must take is to clearly define his objective before producing a translation which is as true as possible to the original text. One of the aspects of Hans Vermeer’s concept of skopos (1989:227) is the establishment of a clearly defined objective or purpose for translation: Any form of translational action, including therefore translation itself, may be conceived as an action, as the name implies. Any action has an aim, a purpose. The word skopos, then, is a technical term for the aim or purpose of translation. 0 This said, we are in agreement with Lorenzo et. al (1999: 324) in the transators’ role to â€Å"preserve t he purpose of the ST (source text) without any gratuitous alteration. The main objective of any translation should be that of faithfulness to the original text with close attention to coherence. With this objective in mind, any translation of The Catcher in the Rye must consider the possible purposes the author had in using colloquial idioms/metaphors in the first place.Paul Newmark proposes that there are two purposes that metaphors serve: a referential purpose, which describes â€Å"a mental process or state, a concept, a person, an object, a quality or an action more comprehensively and concisely than is possible in literal or physical language†9 and a pragmatic purpose â€Å"which is simultaneous, is to appeal to the senses, to interest, to clarify â€Å"graphically†, to please, to delight, to surprise. The first purpose is cognitive, the second aesthetic. 10 Although Holden's colloquial metaphors/idioms do have referential significance, it is arguable that much o f their significance in forming an integral part of his idiolect derives from their pragmatic or aesthetic purpose, their contribution to the flavor of Holden's discourse. Any translation of The Catcher in the Rye would have to be sensitive to the effect that they produce on readers, and try to produce the same effect in the miscelanea: a journal of english and american studies 35 (2007): pp. 7-75 ISSN: 1137-6368 Translating colloquial idioms/metaphors in The Catcher in the Rye translation (Nida's Equivalent Effect). This would entail, whenever possible, locating in the target language a metaphor used in informal registers whose semantic content overlaps as closely as possible the meanings of the original metaphor. This would require a parallelism between form and meaning or a principle of identity as Lorenzo et al. (1999) describe where: †¦ ny element in the ST [source text] should be translated and translatable into the TT [target text] by paying close attention not only to t he content but also to the form. Accordingly, there should be a close structural and meaningful parallelism (=identity) between the source and the target language. The translator, then, should stick to the ST itself as the only base for the process of translation. The TT, therefore, will be the result of a close analysis of the ST by following the identity principle and an attempt at further interpretation or deviation should be discarded. 1 For the sake of simplicity in this research, I will be using Lopez’s (1997) definition12 of lexicalized structures with a slight modification: her definition encompasses idioms and cliches which can be understood in a broader sense as ‘word combinations’, ‘fixed expressions’ and ‘phrasal lexemes’. Although they are distinctive elements in the idiolect of Holden as well, I propose to exclude routine formulae (you could tell, if you know what I mean) and non-canonical expressions, understood by Lyons ( 1968: 178) in Lopez as ‘schemata’ (How about†¦? , to focus the research specifically on Holden's colloquial idioms/metaphors and the methods that were used in their translation. These will be described according to Lopez’s model13, which was derived in part from Baker (1992), who describes four principal methods: literal translation, translation by equivalence, translation by modification and translation by omission. Literal translation involves the use of a lexical structure in the target language that is similar in form and meaning. These correspondences are rarer, but they do occur. For example when Holden says â€Å"I damn near dropped dead† (p. 1) the colloquial idiom/metaphor â€Å"to drop dead† is translated using the literal translation method as there exists a correspondence in form and meaning in both Spanish â€Å"Casi me caigo muerto† (p. 46), and Catalan â€Å"Va anar de poc que no caigues a terra mort† (p. 51). Trans lation by equivalence is a method that is often employed when there is no complete correspondence between structure and form between the source and target language. It involves the use of another lexical structure in the target language that is similar in meaning but different in form. â€Å"I wouldn’t have the guts to do it† (p. 9) is translated into Spanish as â€Å"no habria tenido agallas para hacerlo† (p. 116) and into Catalan as â€Å"no tindria pebrots de fer-ho† (144). The structures themselves are practically identical; the difference resides in the fact that while the noun ‘guts’ can express courage idiomatically in English, the same is not true in miscelanea: a journal of english and american studies 35 (2007): pp. 57-75 ISSN: 1137-6368 61 Michael O’Mara 62 Spanish or in Catalan and is realized by different nouns, namely, ‘agallas’, literally ‘gills’ or ‘tonsils’ in Spanish and ‘p ebrots’, or literally, ‘peppers’ in Catalan.Translation by modification involves paraphrasing or explaining the metaphorical meaning of a lexicalized structure. The result is the loss of figurative meaning; the idea is no longer expressed in metaphorical terms. This method is usually employed when no equivalent or near equivalent structure can be found in the target language. Baker argues that this technique is also used when â€Å"it seems inappropriate to use idiomatic language in the target text because of differences in stylistic preferences of the source and target languages†. 14 For example, â€Å"Old Stradlater was one of his pets†¦ (p. 43) is translated in Spanish as â€Å"Stradlater era uno de sus favoritos†¦ † (p. 60) and Catalan as â€Å"L'Stradlater era un dels seus preferits†¦ † (p. 71). In English ‘pet’ has the following meanings: â€Å"1: a domesticated animal kept for pleasure rather than utility; 2a: a pampered and usually spoiled child; b: a person who is treated with unusual kindness or consideration: darling†. 15 The meanings of this word in Spanish (animal domestico† or â€Å"mascota†) and in Catalan (â€Å"animal domestic†) are not usually extended to describe people who are treated with â€Å"kindness and consideration†.Here, a similar metaphor in meaning but not in form could be used, or, as is the case in this example, the metaphor might be paraphrased or explained. The last method, omission, is used when a metaphor in the source language is not translated since an equivalent cannot be found, or because it is not easy to explain, or for stylistic reasons is not deemed appropriate for inclusion. This last method introduces some interesting concerns: it is quite possible that there is no similar structure in the target language to explain the paraphrasing of a metaphor, but if such similar or equivalentt structures were to exist, there ight be other elements within the greater cultural context of the target language (elements absent in the greater cultural context of the source language) that could impact the appropriateness of their use. Perhaps, what should be considered is whether the possible connotations that the metaphor could have or produce outside its culture of origin might distract the reader from the original field of reference of the metaphor, or introduce secondary meanings that are not necessarily present in the circumstances of the original metaphor. miscelanea: a journal of english and american studies 35 (2007): pp. 7-75 ISSN: 1137-6368 Translating colloquial idioms/metaphors in The Catcher in the Rye Source text colloquial metaphors and their target text representations: Description METAPHOR ST (P. ) 1 †¦ I got pretty run-down†¦ (1) SPANISH TT (P. ) †¦ me quedara bastante hecho polvo†¦ (9) Equivalence 2 It killed me. (2) Me dejo sin habla. (10) Equivalence 3 Strictly for the birds. (2) Bobadas. (10) Modification 4 So I got the ax. They give guys the ax quite frequently at Pencey. (4) Asi que me expulsaron. En Pencey expulsan a los chicos con mucha frecuencia. (12) Modification 5 I have no wind,†¦ (5) No tengo nada de fuelle†¦ 13) Equivalence 6 They got a bang out of things,†¦ (6) Pero se lo pasaban bomba con sus cosas,†¦ (16) Equivalence 7 †¦ though – in a half-assed way, of course. (6) †¦ un poco a lo tonto, claro. (16) Equivalence 8 It gets on your nerves sometimes (7) A veces te ponia nervioso. (17) Modification16 9 That knocked him out. (8) Se hizo una gracia tremenda. (17) Equivalence 10 I mean he didn't hit the ceiling or anything. (8) Vamos, que no se puso como una fiera ni nada. (18) Equivalence CATALAN TT (P. ) †¦ d'acabar ben desinflat†¦ (7) Equivalence En va deixar de pedra. (8) Equivalence Sense comentaris. 8) Modification O sigui que em van fotre al carrer. Foten la gent al carrer ben sovint, a Pencey. (11) Equivalence 63 No aguanto gens†¦ (13) Modification S'ho passaven be,†¦ (15) Modification †¦ pero a mig gas, es clar. (15) Equivalence A vegades et posava nervios. (16) Modification Aixo el va fer petar de riure. (17) Equivalence Vull dir que no va pujar per les parets ni res d'aixo. (18) Literal miscelanea: a journal of english and american studies 35 (2007): pp. 57-75 ISSN: 1137-6368 Michael O’Mara METAPHOR ST (P. ) 11 So I shot the bull for a while (12) SPANISH TT (P. ) †¦ asi que me enrolle un buen rato. 23) Modification CATALAN TT (P. ) Aixi que vaig xerrar una estona. (24) Modification Es ficaven pel coi de finestra i tot. (24) Literal Aquesta historia em va deixar ben de pedra. (32) Equivalence †¦ i llegeixo molts llibres de guerra i de misteri i etcetera, pero no m'entusiasmen gaire. (33) Modification â€Å"Suare sang†¦ † (47) Equivalence †¦ m'ho passo de por imitant-les. (49) Equivalence No aguanto res de res. ( 49) Modification 12 They were coming in the goddam window. (13) Los habia a patadas. (24) Equivalence 13 That story just about killed me. (18) Esa historia por poco me deja sin habla. (31) Equivalence 4 †¦ and I read a lot of war books and mysteries and all, but they don't knock me out too much. (18) †¦ y leo un monton de libros de guerra y de misterio y todo eso, pero no me vuelven loco. (31) Equivalence 15 64 â€Å"†¦ I'll be up the creek†¦ † (28) â€Å"†¦ me la cargo†¦ † (43) Equivalence 16 I get a bang imitating them. (29) †¦ lo paso bomba imitando a†¦ (44) Equivalence 17 I have hardly any wind at all (29) Tengo muy poco fuelle. (44) Equivalence 18 I damn near dropped dead. (31) Casi me caigo muerto. (46) Va anar de poc que no caigues a terra mort. (51) Literal Literal I no ho deien nomes per dir. 63) Modification El feia tornar boig†¦ (69) Equivalence L'Stradlater era un dels seus preferits†¦ (71) Modification 19 A nd they weren't just shooting the crap. (38) Y no lo decian por decir. (54) Modification 20 It drove him crazy†¦ (41) Le sacaba de quicio†¦ (59) Equivalence 21 Old Stradlater was one of his pets†¦ (43) Stradlater era uno de sus favoritos†¦ (60) Modification miscelanea: a journal of english and american studies 35 (2007): pp. 57-75 ISSN: 1137-6368 Translating colloquial idioms/metaphors in The Catcher in the Rye METAPHOR ST (P. ) 22 I'd been given the ax†¦ (51) SPANISH TT (P. ) †¦ e habian expulsado†¦ (71) Modification CATALAN TT (P. ) †¦ m'havien fotut fora†¦ (85) Equivalence †¦ i jo estava aqui, expulsat una altra vegada. (85) Modification No hi toca gaire†¦ (86) Equivalence Aixo em va deixar clavat. (91) Equivalence Aixo em va matar. (91) Literal Despres vaig comencar a deixar anar la llengua de debo. (92) Equivalence †¦ i vaig poder descansar la llengua. De totes , maneres no em sap greu haver-la fet anar una estona. (93 ) Equivalence †¦ despres del que li vaig deixar anar†¦ (94) Equivalence Que n'era una de ben grossa†¦ (95) Equivalence Tenia ganes de trucar algu. 97) Modification Despres vaig pensar de trucar a la mare de Jane Gallagher†¦ (97) 65 23 -and here I was getting the ax again. (52) †¦ mientras me estaban expulsando otra vez. (71) Modification 24 She doesn't have all her marbles any more†¦ (52) Esta un poco ida†¦ (72) Equivalence 25 That killed me. (55) Me dejo sin habla. (76) Equivalence 26 That killed me. (55) Me dejo sin habla. (76) Equivalence 27 Then I really started chucking the old crap around (56) Entonces fue cuando de verdad empece a meter bolas. (77) Equivalence 28 †¦ and it gave me a chance to quit shooting it. I'm glad I shot it for a while, though. (57) .. me dio la oportunidad de dejar de largar. Pero me alegre de haber largado un rato. (78) Equivalence 29 †¦ after all the crap I shot, (57) †¦ despues de todo el rollo que le largue†¦ (78) Equivalence 30 Which was really a hot one†¦ (58) Esa si que era buena†¦ (80) Modification 31 I felt like giving somebody a buzz. (59) Tenia ganas de llamar a alguien. (81) Modification 32 Then I thought of giving Jane Gallagher's mother a buzz,†¦ (59) Luego pense en llamar a la madre de Jane Gallagher†¦ (81) miscelanea: a journal of english and american studies 35 (2007): pp. 57-75 ISSN: 1137-6368 Michael O’Mara METAPHOR ST (P. SPANISH TT (P. ) Modification CATALAN TT (P. ) Modification †¦ no hi hauries de fer el ximple†¦ (102) Equivalence Vaig passar-me tota la nit festejant amb una hipocrita terrible†¦ (103) Equivalence †¦ vaig comencar a jugar amb la idea de trucar a la Jane,†¦ (103) Modification 33 †¦ you shouldn't horse around with her at all,†¦ (62) †¦ no deberias hacer el indio con ella†¦ (85) Equivalence 34 I spent the whole night necking with a terrible phony†¦ (63) Me pase toda la noche besandome y todo eso con una chica falsisima†¦ (85) Modification 35 I started toying with the idea,†¦ , of giving old Jane a buzz†¦ 63) †¦ empece a jugar con la idea de llamar a Jane,†¦ (86) Modification 36 Anyway, I went over to the phone and gave her a buzz. (63) Bueno, pues fui al telefono Es igual, vaig agafar el y la llame. (86) telefon i li vaig trucar. (104) Modification Modification †¦ , va anar de ben poc que no truco a la Phoebe,†¦ (110) Modification Pero no podia arriscar-me a fer-li una trucada,†¦ (110) Equivalence †¦ no m'hauria fet res xerrar una estona amb la Phoebe. (110) Modification †¦ L'Allie tenia en barco de vela i li agradava jugar-hi†¦ (112) Modification Sabia que no el deixaria anar gaire lluny amb ella†¦ 130) Modification 66 37 †¦ I damn near gave my kid sister Phoebe a buzz,†¦ (66) †¦ estuve casi a punto de llamar a mi hermana Phoebe. (90) Modification 38 But I couldn't tak e a chance on giving her a buzz,†¦ (66) Pero no podia arriesgarme a llamarla†¦ (90) Modification 39 †¦ I certainly wouldn't have minded shooting the crap†¦ (67) Pero no me habria importado pegar la hebra†¦ (90) Equivalence 40 Allie had this sailboat he used to like to fool around with†¦ (68) Allie tenia un barquito de vela con el que le gustaba jugar†¦ (92) Modification 41 I knew she wouldn't let him get to first base with her,†¦ 80) Sabia que no le habria dejado llegar hasta el final con ella†¦ (105)17 Modification miscelanea: a journal of english and american studies 35 (2007): pp. 57-75 ISSN: 1137-6368 Translating colloquial idioms/metaphors in The Catcher in the Rye METAPHOR ST (P. ) 42 †¦ and a lot of other very tricky stuff that gives me a pain in the ass. (84) SPANISH TT (P. ) †¦ y un monton de florituras de esas que me dan cien patadas. (110) Equivalence CATALAN TT (P. ) †¦ i tota una altra pila de filigranes que em fan venir mal d'estomac. (137) Equivalence Soc un d'aquells tios forca gallines. (143) Equivalence †¦ no tindria pebrots de fer-ho. 144) Equivalence No es pas gens divertit ser gallina. Potser no soc gallina del tot. No ho se. Em sembla que potser soc nomes una mica gallina†¦ soc una mica gallina†¦ El que no s'hauria de ser es gallina. (145) Equivalence Es ser gallina d'una manera molt curiosa†¦ pero es ser gallina, i tant. (146) Equivalence Ell va quedar ben torrat†¦ (146) Equivalence Tens ganes de sucar aquesta nit? (147) Equivalence †¦ no m'havia de mudar ni res per una prostituta†¦ (149) Equivalence Quan fa una estona que les petoneges,†¦ (150) Modification 43 I'm one of these very yellow guys (88) Soy un tio de lo mas cobarde. 115) Modification 44 I wouldn't have the guts to do it. (89) †¦ no habria tenido agallas para hacerlo. (116) Equivalence 45 It's no fun to be yellow. Maybe I'm not all yellow. I don't know. I think maybe I'm j ust partly yellow†¦ I'm partly yellow†¦ what you should be is not yellow at all. (89) No tiene gracia ser cobarde. Aunque quiza no sea cobarde del todo. No se. Creo que en parte soy cobarde†¦ en parte cobarde†¦ No se debe ser cobarde en absoluto; (117) Modification 67 46 It's a funny kind of yellowness†¦ but it's yellowness, all right (90) †¦ es un tipo de cobardia bastante raro, pero aun asi es cobardia. 117) Modification 47 He got stinking,†¦ (90) El acabo curda perdido†¦ (118) Equivalence 48 Innarested in a little tail t'night? (91) ?Te interesa echar un polvo esta noche? (118) Equivalence 49 I know I didn't have to get all dolled up for a prostitute or anything†¦ (91) †¦ no tenia que ponerme de punto en blanco ni nada de eso para una prostituta†¦ (119) Equivalence 50 After you neck them for a while,†¦ (92) Despues de que te has besado y achuchado y todo eso con ellas,†¦ (120) Modification miscelanea: a journal of e nglish and american studies 35 (2007): pp. 57-75 ISSN: 1137-6368 Michael O’Mara METAPHOR ST (P. 51 When I'm horsing around with a girl†¦ (93) SPANISH TT (P. ) †¦ cuando estoy enrollandome con una chica†¦ (121) Equivalence CATALAN TT (P. ) †¦ quan estic amb una tia†¦ (151) Equivalence Vaig pensar de trucar a la Jane,†¦ (169) Modification †¦ si no ens haguessim petonejat tant i tant. (170) Modification †¦ la persona que estic petonejant†¦ (170) Modification Em tocava molt l'oremus†¦ (171) Equivalence †¦ m'havien tornat a fotre fora. (173) Equivalence †¦ faria una trucada a la Jane†¦ (186) Equivalence Podia agafar alguna cosa ben jazzy†¦ i xiular-ho tan facil i be†¦ que et podia deixar de pedra. 198) Equivalence Vam fer una mica de comedia al taxi. (200) Equivalence Ets pitjor que un gra al cul†¦ (212) Literal 52 I thought of giving old Jabe a buzz,†¦ (105) Pense en llamar a Jane†¦ (136) Mo dification 53 †¦ if we hadn't necked so damn much. (105) †¦ si no nos hubieramos besado y achuchado tanto. (137) Modification 54 †¦ whoever I'm necking†¦ (105) †¦ la persona con la que me estoy besando y todo eso†¦ (137) Modification 68 55 She gave me a pain in the ass†¦ (106) Me caia como una patada en el culo†¦ (138) Literal 56 I got the ax again (107) †¦ me habian expulsado otra vez. (139) Modification 7 †¦ I'd give old Jane a buzz†¦ (116) †¦ podia llamar a Jane†¦ (149) Modification 58 He could take something very jazzy†¦ and whistle it so nice†¦ it could kill you. (124) Podia coger una cancion muy de jazz†¦ y la silbaba tan bien y tan suavecito†¦ que te podias morir. (158) Literal 59 We horsed around a little bit in the cab†¦ (125) En el taxi†¦ nos besamos y nos achuchamos un poco. (159) Modification 60 You give me a royal pain in the ass†¦ (133) †¦ me caes peor que una patad a en el culo. (169) Literal miscelanea: a journal of english and american studies 35 (2007): pp. 57-75 ISSN: 1137-6368Translating colloquial idioms/metaphors in The Catcher in the Rye METAPHOR ST (P. ) 61 Boy, did she hit the ceiling when I said that. (133) SPANISH TT (P. ) Jo, como se puso cuando le dije aquello. (169) Equivalence CATALAN TT (P. ) Hosti, si va tocar el sostre quan vaig dir aixo. (212) Literal Ho vaig anar tallant gradualment. (225). Equivalence †¦ els hipocrites hi entren per les finestres. (225) Literal Nomes feia comedia, jo. (229) Equivalence Me n'he d'anar†¦ (235) Modification Era estrictament pitjor que un gra al cul†¦ (236) Literal †¦ va fotre el camp de la sala†¦ (237) Equivalence Nomes feia comedia, es clar. 243) Equivalence †¦ i xerraria una estona amb ella. (248) Modification †¦ la Phoebe sempre porta algun vestit que et deixa de pedra. (253) Equivalence Els quaderns dels nanos fan pixar de riure. (255) Equivalence Anava torrat†¦ (259) 69 62 I gradually cut it out. (141) Deje de ir poco a poco. (179) Modification 63 †¦ the phonies are coming in the window. (141) †¦ hay tios falsos a patadas. (179) Equivalence 64 I was only horsing around. (144) Solo estaba haciendo el indio. (182) Equivalence 65 I have to tear†¦ (148) Tengo que largarme†¦ (187) Modification 66 He was strictly a pain in the ass†¦ (149)Era igualito que una patada en el culo†¦ (187) Literal 67 †¦ she beat it out of the room†¦ (149) †¦ se largo†¦ (188) Modification 68 I was only horsing around†¦ (153) †¦ solo estaba haciendo el indio†¦ (192) Equivalence 69 †¦ just sort of chew the fat with her for a while. (156) †¦ pegar la hebra un rato con ella. (196) Equivalence 70 Phoebe always has some dress on that can kill you. (160) Phoebe lleva siempre unos vestidos que te dejan sin habla. (200) Equivalence 71 Kids’ notebooks kill me. (161) Los cuadernos de los crios me dejan sin habla. (202) Equivalence 72 I was plastered (163) Estaba curda (204) iscelanea: a journal of english and american studies 35 (2007): pp. 57-75 ISSN: 1137-6368 Michael O’Mara METAPHOR ST (P. ) SPANISH TT (P. ) Equivalence CATALAN TT (P. ) Equivalence Em va deixar de pedra. (259) Equivalence Volia dir per que m'havien fotut al carrer un altre cop. (264) Equivalence Em feia pixar de riure. (276) Equivalence Nomes fem una mica de comedia a dins de casa. (277) Equivalence Aixo em fa molta gracia. (277) Equivalence †¦ li trucaria,†¦ (283) Modification †¦ anava una mica alegre. (287) Equivalence †¦ et posa nervios†¦ (287) Modification †¦ anava forca alegre. (296) Equivalence Segurament li trucare†¦ 300) Modification †¦ pero la Phoebe es moria de riure. (310) 73 She kills me. (164) Me deja sin habla. (204) Equivalence 74 She meant why did I get the ax again. (167) Se referia a que hubieran vuelto a expulsarme. (209) Modif ication 75 She kills me. (175) Me deja sin habla. (219) Equivalence 76 We just horse around†¦ (175) Solo hacemos el indio†¦ (219) Equivalence 70 77 That kills me. (175) Me deja sin habla. (220) Equivalence 78 †¦ I'd give her a buzz†¦ (180) †¦ la llamaria†¦ (225) Modification 79 †¦ he was a little oiled up. (182) †¦ estaba un poco bebido†¦ (227) Modification 80 †¦ it gets on your nerves†¦ 182) †¦ le pone a uno nervioso†¦ (228) Modification 81 He was pretty oiled up,†¦ (188) †¦ estaba bastante curda. (234) Equivalence 82 I'm probably gonna give her a buzz†¦ (191) Probablemente la llamare†¦ (237) Modification 83 †¦ but it killed old Phoebe. (197) †¦ pero a Phoebe le hizo muchisima gracia. (245) miscelanea: a journal of english and american studies 35 (2007): pp. 57-75 ISSN: 1137-6368 Translating colloquial idioms/metaphors in The Catcher in the Rye METAPHOR ST (P. ) SPANISH TT (P. ) Modificat ion CATALAN TT (P. ) Equivalence †¦ aniria fins al tunel Holland i faria dit, fins que em carreguessin†¦ 311) Equivalence Com si algu hi acabes de fer un riu. (314) Equivalence †¦ algun desgraciat pervertit que es devia haver ficat a l'escola de nits per pixar o alguna cosa aixi†¦ (315) Modification †¦ la vam fer petar una estona. (316) Equivalence Es va girar i va fotre el camp. (319) Equivalence Es mes gallina que un plat de caldo†¦ (319) Equivalence †¦ un d'aquells tunels que sempre fan pudor de pixats. (328) Modification 71 84 I'd go down to the Holland Tunnel and bum a ride†¦ (198) †¦ iria al Tunel Holland, subiria a un coche†¦ (246) Modification 85 Like somebody'd just taken a leak on them. (200) †¦ omo si alguien acabara de mear ahi. (248) Modification 86 †¦ some perverty bum that'd sneaked in the school late at night to take a leak or something†¦ (201) †¦ un pervertido que habia entrado por la noche en el colegio a mear o algo asi†¦ (249)18 Modification 87 †¦ I shot the breeze for a while. (201) †¦ estuvimos de charla un rato. (249) Modification 88 He turned around and beat it. (204) Se volvio y salio corriendo. (252) Modification 89 He's got a yella streak a mile wide (204) Es de un cobarde que no vea†¦ (252) Modification 90 †¦ those little tunnels that always smell from somebody's taking a leak. (210) †¦ sos tuneles que siempre huelen como si alguien hubiera estado alli meando. (258) Modification miscelanea: a journal of english and american studies 35 (2007): pp. 57-75 ISSN: 1137-6368 Michael O’Mara Discussion of results The purpose of this investigation was to determine which of the two translations, Spanish or Catalan, retains the greater degree of figurative/metaphorical meaning in their representations of the colloquial idioms/metaphors that Holden Caulfield uses, having said that the use of colloquial metaphors is one of the most unique an d defining aspects of the idiolect of Holden Caulfield in The Catcher in the Rye.This is not an assessment of how diligently the translators strove or how successful they were in finding equivalents in the target languages and in no way implies a value judgement as to which translation is more ‘accurate’. It is clear that translators work only with the tools that are available in their target languages and cultural contexts. Nevertheless, what this study attempts to provide is data that can help to clarify to what degree the metaphorical nature of ideas expressed using colloquial metaphors in the source text were preserved as such in the Spanish and Catalan translations.Our results seem to suggest that the colloquial metaphors represented in the Catalan translation retain more of the original figurative meaning present in the source text. This translation employs on significantly more occasions the equivalence method of metaphor translation, used on 53 occasions in the Catalan translation and on 41 occasions in the Spanish version. These data are significant because when this method is used to translate an idea expressed as a metaphor in the source text, the idea retains its status as a metaphor in the target text, the only difference being in its form, or appearance.Since no two languages are alike, target languages cannot always provide correspondences in both form/structure and meaning. Our conclusion is also supported by the fact that the modification method of translation was used on significantly more occasions in the Spanish translation than in the Catalan version: it was used 44 times to produce the Spanish translation and 29 times in the production of the Catalan translation.In other words, the colloquial metaphors that Holden uses in the book are found to be explained or paraphrased significantly more in the Spanish translation than in the Catalan version, which represented these metaphors through either equivalence or the literal method . This last method, although to a lesser degree, supports our conclusion as well: it was found that the Catalan translation used a lexicalized structure similar in form and meaning on 8 occasions while it was found on 5 in the Spanish version.Put differently, although the difference is small (5-8), the Catalan translation uses the same or nearly the same metaphor on more occasions than the Spanish translation. Considered numerically, in the Spanish translation the most frequent method used was that of modification (44), followed by equivalence (41), literal translation (5) and finally omission (0); and in the Catalan translation the most frequent method used was equivalence (53), followed by modification (29), literal (8) and finally omission (0) as may be seen in Table 3: miscelanea: a journal of english and american studies 35 (2007): pp. 7-75 ISSN: 1137-6368 72 Translating colloquial idioms/metaphors in The Catcher in the Rye 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 Spanish Catalan Equivalence 41 53 Modification 44 29 Literal 5 8 Omission 0 0 TABLE 2: Translation techniques: frequency 73 Our results can be compared to similar studies such as Lopez Rua (1997) in â€Å"The translation of the idiolects in The Catcher in the Rye: An approach through lexicalized structures† and Lorenzo, M. et al. , (1999): â€Å"Lack of meaning interaction between English, Galician and Spanish in Salinger’s The Catcher in the Rye†.Although the focus of neither study is the translation of colloquial idioms/metaphors, both studies discuss loss of meaning upon translation from English to Spanish and from English to Galician, and coincide in the need to maintain form and meaning between source text and target text. Specifically, Lopez Rua found that the most marked similarity in both translations is the misuse and misapplication of the technique of modification or paraphrasing: Most of the inadequacies detected in the Spanish and Galician versions are related to the translations by paraphrase and by omission.In my view, they are due to the fact that the translators have failed to recognize the defining features of the characters’ idiolect (for example, the systematic use of some lexicalized structures). Apparently, they are not aware of the fact that the writer is deliberately resorting to trite and monotonous vocabulary in order to define the characters and their speech habits. Both translations (but particularly the Spanish one) seem utterly unable to render the characters’ idiolects accurately.Instead of trying to convey those idiolects whenever possible (of course, adapting them to the peculiarities of the TL), in most cases the translators resort to the systematic omission of recurrent structures, and some other times they translate those recurrent structures in many different ways miscelanea: a journal of english and american studies 35 (2007): pp. 57-75 ISSN: 1137-6368 Michael O’Mara without taking into account the context, the styl e, and the character who uses them. As a result, the translation becomes expressionless. 19 The results of Lorenzo et. al. 1999), can be applied as well to our study, especially in terms of the importance of a strict adherence to the identity principle20, from which the Spanish and Gallician versions could have benefited: the majority of the possible errors just studied could have been avoided if the translators had taken into consideration the identity principle†¦ In fact, the identity principle, since it is based on the parallelism between form and meaning in the ST and the TT, would have proved a more accurate mechanism when dealing with the process of translation from a given L1 to L2 and L3. 21 Notes 1 See Costello (1959:173). 74 2 . See Lorenzo, M. , et al. (1999: 324). 8 . Some of these word combinations have been the object of other studies. For example, see Lopez Rua (1997). 9 . See the Oxford English Dictionary’s entry for ‘idiom’: http://dictionar y. oed. com/cgi/entry/50111256? single=1&query_ type=word&queryword=idiom&first=1&max_ to_show=10. 4 . Definition provided by Webster's New Encyclopedic Dictionary (1994: 374). 5 Definition provided by Webster's New Encyclopedic Dictionary (1994: 630). 3 . See Newmark (1988: 104). . Ibid. (1988:104). . See Lorenzo, M. , et. al. (1999: .See Lopez Rua (1997: 147). . Ibid. (1997: 148). . Baker, M. (1992:74) in Lopez Rua 10 11 324). 12 13 14 The term ‘colloquial metaphor’ has been used before, especially in online sources: Answers. com, etc. It was found to be used in some non-linguistic academic contexts (legal) such as â€Å"Why originalism won't die – Common mistakes in competing theories of judicial interpretation†, Duke Journal of Constitutional Law and Public Policy, Online Edition, 2007. Duke J. Con. Law & Pub. Pol'y 230, page 238. 7 . In books that have been published on the subject the term ‘Colloquial idioms’ seems preferable: Ball, W.J. 1972. A Practical Guide to Colloquial Idiom, Wood, F. T. 1976. English Colloquial Idioms, etc. 6 (1997: 148). 15 . Definition provided by Webster's New Encyclopedic Dictionary (1994: 752). 16 . While it is true that both translations of â€Å"It gets on your nerves sometimes† retain figurative/metaphorical meaning, they can be better understood as collocations —†ponerse† (Spanish) and â€Å"posarse† (Catalan) collocate with â€Å"nervioso† (Spanish) and â€Å"nervios† (Catalan)— and their accepted use in both standard Spanish and Catalan is fairly widespread.Here they serve to clarify the original metaphor which in English is generally considered more informal. miscelanea: a journal of english and american studies 35 (2007): pp. 57-75 ISSN: 1137-6368 Translating colloquial idioms/metaphors in The Catcher in the Rye 17 . The translation of the colloquial metaphor â€Å"to get to first base† with someone here is somewhat in accurate. The Catalan translation is closer in meaning to the ST, where the metaphor is used in relation to romantic intimacy: first base refers to initial contacts such as kissing; a â€Å"homerun† generally refers to sexual intercourse. 8 . The absence of a translation for the word â€Å"bum† in the Spanish translation may be considered somewhat inaccurate: although the word â€Å"bum† does not form a part of the metaphor itself, it does contribute to the atmosphere in which the metaphor is presented. In this case, the â€Å"perverty bum† was left just as â€Å"un pervertido† in the Spanish translation, omitting the vital bit of information that the person is a â€Å"bum† i. e. a homeless and/or poor person. The Catalan version translates it as a â€Å"desgraciat† or unfortunate, unlucky, or even wretched person.One might suggest that a â€Å"perverty bum† is more in keeping with the idiolect of Holden than just a â€Å"perv ert†. 19 . See Lopez Rua (1997: 149). . See Lorenzo, M. et al. (1999: 5). . Ibid. (1999:329). 20 21 Works cited American Library Association. http://www. ala. org/ala/oif/bannedbooksweek/bbwlinks/100 mostfrequently. htm BAKER, M. 1992. In Other Words: A Coursebook on Translation. London: Routledge. BALL, W. J. 1972. Practical guide to colloquial idiom. London: Longman. COSTELLO, D. P. 1959. â€Å"The language of The Catcher in the Rye,† AmericanSpeech, Vol. 34, no. 3, October:172-81. LOPEZ RUA, P. 1997. â€Å"The translation of the idiolects in The Catcher in the Rye: An approach through lexicalized structures†. Miscelanea: A Journal of English and American Studies, 18: 139-158. LORENZO, M. , et. al. 1999. â€Å"Lack of meaning interaction between English, Galician and Spanish in Salinger’s The Catcher in the Rye†. Estudios de linguistica contrastiva. Universidade de Santiago de Compostela: 323-330. MERRIAM-WEBSTER Inc. 1994. Webster's New Encyclope dic Dictionary.New York: Black Dog & Leventhal. Received: 11 June 2007 Revised version: 17 January 2008 NEWMARK, P. 1988. A textbook of translation. London: Prentice Hall International. OXFORD ENGLISH DICTIONARY: http://dictionary. oed. com/cgi/entry/50034626? single=1&query_ type=word&queryword=catharsis&first=1&max _to_show=10 SALINGER, J. D. 1951. The Catcher in the Rye. Boston, MA: Little, Brown and Company. —. 1990. El vigilant en el camp de segol. Trans. E. Riera & J. Fonalleras. Barcelona: Editorial Empuries. —. 2006. El guardian entre el centeno.Trans. C. Criado. Madrid: Alianza Editorial. SMITH, T. 2007. â€Å"Why originalism won't die – Common mistakes in competing theories of judicial interpretation†. Duke Journal of Constitutional Law and Public Policy. Online edition, 159: 230-238. VERMEER, H. 2004. â€Å"Skopos and comission in translational action†. In Venuti, L. (ed. ) The translation studies reader. London: Routledge. WOOD, F. T. 1 976. English colloquial idioms. London: Macmillan. 75 miscelanea: a journal of english and american studies 35 (2007): pp. 57-75 ISSN: 1137-6368